N FE W works of literature are held in greater eftimation, than thofe which treat in a me- thodical and elementary way of the principles of fcience. But the human mind in every enlight- ened age is progreffive; and the bell elementary treatifes after a certain time are reduced in their value by the operation of fubfequent difcoveries. Hence it has always been defired by candid en- quirers, that preceding works of this kind fhould from time to time be fuperfeded, and that other produ6tions including the larger views that have fmce offered themfelves, ftiould be fubftituted in their place- It would be llransje if fomethingr of this kind were not dehrable in politics, after the great change that has been produced in men's minds upon this fubjeftj and the light that has been 1 thrown vi PREFACE.
thrown upon it by the recent difcuffions of Ame- rica and France. A fenfe of the value of fach a work, if properly executed, was the motive which o-ave birth to thefe volumes. Of their execution the reader muft judge.
Authors who have formed the defign of fuper- feding the works of their predeceffors, will be found, if they were ii;i any degree equal to the de- fign, not merely to have Golle6ted the fcattered information that had been produced upon the fubje6l, but to have increafed the fcience with the fruit of their own meditations. In the following work principles will occafionally be found, which it will not be juft to rejeft without examination, merely becaufe they are new. It was impoflible perfeveringly to refleft upon fo prolific a fcience, and a fcience which may be faid to be yet in its infancy, without being led into ways of thinking that were in fome degree uncommon.
Another PREFACE. vli' Another argument in favour of the utiHty of fuch a work w^as frequently in the author's mind, and therefore ought to be mentioned. He con- ceived pohtics to be the proper vehicle of a libe- ral m^orality. That defcription of ethics deferves to be held in fliglit ellimation, which feeks only to regulate our conduft in articles of particular and perfonal concern, inftead of exciting our atten- tion to the general good of the Ipecies. It ap- peared fufficiently prafticable to make of fuch a treatife, exclufively of its dire6l political ufe, an advantageous vehicle of moral improvement. He was accordingly defirous of producing a work, from the perufal of which no man fhould rife without being Hrengthened in habits of fmeerity, fortitude and juftice.
Having ftated the confiderations in which the work originated, it is proper to mention a few cir- ctrmftances of the outline of its hiftory. The fen- timents it contains are by no means the fuggeftions ©f a fudden effervefcence of fancy. Political en- 1, quiry Vlll PREFACE.
Vlll PREFACE.
quiry had long held a foremoft place in the writer's attention. It is now twelve years fmce he be-^ came fatisfied, that monarchy was a fpecies of go- vernment unavoidably corrupt. He owed this con- vi6lion to the political writings of Swift and to a perufal of the Latin hiftorians. Nearly at the fame time he derived great additional inftru6lion from reading the moft confiderable French writers upon the nature of man in the following order^ Syjieme de la Nature, Rouffeau and Helvetius. Long, before he thought of the prefent work, he had fa- miliarifed to his mind the arguments it contains on juftice, gratitude, rights of man, promifes, oaths and the omnipotence of truth. Political com- plexity is one of the errors that take ftrongeft hold on the underftanding; and it was only by ideas fuggefted by the French revolution, that he was reconciled to the defirablenefs of a government of the fimpleft conllruftion. To the fame event he owes the determination of mind which gave exill- ence to this work» Such PREFACE.
IX Such PREFACE.
IX Such was the preparation which encouraged him to undertake the prefent treatife. The dire6l ex- ecution may be difmiffed in a few words. It was projefted in the month of May 1791: the com- pofition was begun in the following September, and has therefore occupied a fpace of fixteen months. This period was devoted to" the purpofe with unremitted ardour. It were to be wiflied it had been longer; but it feemed as if no con- temptible part of the utility of the work depended upon its early appearance.
The printing of the following treatife, as well as the compofition, was influenced by the fame principle, a defire to reconcile a certain de- gree of difpatch with the neceffary deliberation. The printing was for that reafon commenced, long before the compofition was finiihed. Some dif- advantages have arifen from this circumftance. The ideas of the author became more perfpicuous and digefted, as his enquiries advanced. The longer he confidered the fubjeft, the more accub rately X PREFACE.
rately he feemed to underftand it. This circum- fiance has led him into a few contradiftions. The principal of thefe confifls in an occafional inaccu- racy of language, particularly in the lirft book, re- fpefting the word government. He did not enter upon the w^ork, without being aware that govern- ment by its very nature countera61;s the improve- ment of individual mind; but he underftood the full meaning of this proportion more completely as he proceeded, and faw more diftinftly into the nature of the remedy. This, and a few other de- fers, under a different mode of preparation would have been avoided. The candid reader will make a fuitable allowance. The author judges upon a review, that thefe defe6ls are fuch as not materially to injure the objeft of the work, and that more has been gained than loft by the con- du6l he has purfued.
The period in which* the work makes its ap- pearance is fmgular. The people of England have affiduoufly been excited to declare their loy- 5 alty, PREFACE.
XI alty, and to mark every man as obnoxious who is not ready to fign the Shibboleth of the conftitu- tion. Money is raifed by voluntary fubfcription to defray the expence ofprofecutingmen who Ihall dare to promulgate heretical opinions, and thus to opprefs them at once with the enmity of govern- ment and of individuals. This was an accident wholly unforefeeiT when the work was under- taken; and it will fcarcely be fuppofed that fuch an accident could produce any alteration in the writer's defigns. Every man, if we may believe the voice of rumour, is to be profecuted who fliall appeal to the people by the publication of any unconftitutional paper or pamphlet; and it it added, that men are to be profecuted for any un- guarded words that may be dropped in the warmth of converfation and debate. It is now to be tried whether, in addition to thefe alarming en- croachments upon our liberty, a book is to fall under the arm of the civil power, which, befide the advantage of having for one of its exprefs ob*- je6ls the diffuading from all tumult and violence, xii PREFACE.
xii PREFACE.
is by its very nature an appeal to men of ftudy and reflexion. It is to be tried whether a projeft is formed for fupprelTing the aftivity of mind, and putting an end to the difquifitions of fcience. Refpe6ling the event in a perfonal view the author has formed his refolution. Whatever condu6l his countrymen may purfue, they will not be able to fhake his tranquillity. The duty he is moft bound to difcharge is the aflifting the progrefs of truth; and if he fuffer in any refpeft for fuch a proceeding, there is certainly no viciflitude that can befal him, that can ever bring along with it a more fatisfa6lory confolation.
But, exclufively of this precarious and unim- portant confideration, it is the fortune of the pre- fent work to appear before a public that is panic ftruck, and impreffed with the moft dreadful ap- prehenfions of fuch doftrines as are here deli- vered. All the prejudices of the human mind are in arms againft it. This circumftance may appear to be of greater importance than the other.
But PREFACE.
xin But PREFACE.
xin But it Is the property of truth to be fearlefs, and to prove vi6lorious over every adverfary. It re- quires no great degree of fortitude, to look with indifference upon the falfe fire of the moment, and to forefee the calm period of reafon which will fucceed.
OF THE.
BOOK I.
OF THE IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.
BOOK II.
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETY.
BOOK III.
PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT.
BOOK IV.
MISCELLANEOUS PRINCIPLES, CONTENTS OF THE FIRST BOOK.
OF THE IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.
INTRODUCTION.
fnr'HE fubjeSi propofed. — Syjlem of indifference — of paffive obe^ "* dience — of liberty, — Syjlem of liberty extended^ Page i CHAP. IL HISTORY OF POLITICAL SOCIETY.
frequency of war — among the ancients — among the moderns — the French — the Engllp. — Caufes of war. — Penal laws. — i^f-" fotlfmy — Dgdudilon^-'Enumeratm of arguments, § k CHAP, CONTENTS.
CHAP. III.
THE MORAL CHARACTERS OF MEN ORIGINATE IN THEIR PERCEPTIONS.
No mnate principles. — ObjeSiions to this offer tio7i— from the early aStions of infants— from the defre offelf-prefervation—fromfelf- love—from pity — from the vices of children — tyranny — fullennefs, — Conclufon. Page 12 THREE PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF MORAL IMPROVE- MENT CONSIDERED.
I. LITERATURE.
Benefits of literature. — Examples. — Effential properties of literature.
— Its defedts.
II. EDUCATION. Benefits of education. — Caufes of its imbecility.
III. POLITICAL JUSTICE. Benefits of political injiitution. — Univerfality of its influence— proved by the mifiakes offociety. — Origin of evil., 19 INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS EXEMPLIFIED.
Robbery and fraud, two great vices infociety — originate, 1. in ex- treme poverty — 2. in the ofientation of the rich — 3. in their tyranny CONTENTS.
tyranny — rendered permanent — i. by kgijlatlon — 2. by ths ad~ tnimjlration of law — 3. by the inequality of conditions. Page -Jt'i CHAP. VI.
HUMAN INVENTIONS CAPABLE OF PERPETUAL IM- PROVEMENT.
PerfeStibility of man — infanced, frjl, in language. — Its beginnings. — AbJlraSlion. — Complexity of language. — Second injiance: al' phabetical writing. — Hieroglyphics atfirfl univerfal. — ProgreJJive deviations. — Application. 43 CHAP. VII.
OF THE OBJECTION TO THESE PRINCIPLES FROM THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE.
PARTI.
OF MORAL AND PHTSICAL CAUSES.
'the queflton fated. — Provinces of fenfation and refleSlion. — Moral caufes frequently mifaken for phyfical. — Superiority of the former evident from the varieties of human charaSier. — Operation of phyfcal caufes rare. — Fertility of reflexion. — Phyfical caufes in the firfi infiance fuperior^ afterwards moral. — Obje^ion from the effeit of breed in animals. — Conclufon, 51 ba PART CONTENTS.
OF NATIONAL CHARACTERS.
CharaSier of the priejlhood. — All nations capable of liberty. — The ajfertion illujirated. — 'Experience favours thefe reafonings, — Means of introducing liberty. Page 60 CHAP. VIII.
OF THE OBJECTION TO THESE PRINCIPLES FROM THE INFLUENCE OF LUXURY.
The objeSlionfiated, — Source of this objedHon.— Refuted from muta- bility—frotn mortality— from the nature of truth,— 'The pro- bability of perfeverance confidered^ ny PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETr.
INTRODUCTION.
Nature of the enquiry. — Mode of purfuing it. — Di/linBion between fociety and government 77 CONTENTS.
CHAP. II. OFJUSTICE.
Connection of politics and morals. — Extent and meaning of jujlice.-^- Subje^ of jujlice: mankind. — Bs diflribution meafured by the capacity of its fubjeSl — by bis ufefulnefs. — Family affeSlion con- Jidered. — Gratitude conjidered. — Ohjedlions: from ignorance-^ from utility. — An exception fated. — Degrees ofjufice. — AppUcU" iion. — Idea of political juf ice. Page 8p APPENDIX, No. I.
OF SUICIDE, Motives of fuicide: I. efcape from pain — 2. benevolence.-— Martyrdom confidered. 02 APPENDIX, No. II.
OF DUELLING.
Motives of duelling: \, revenge — 2. reputation for courage,—' Fallacy of this motive. — ObjeSllon anfwered, — Illujiration. 94 CHAP. III. OF DUTY.
A difficulty fated. — Of abfolute and praSllcal virtue. — Impropriety of this difinUlion. — Unlverfallty of what is called praSlical virtue 8 — infanced CONTENTS.
— mjianced in robbery — in religious fanaticifm. — T/6^ quality of an aSlion diJlinSl from the difpojition with which it is performed, — Farther difficulty. — Meaning of the term, duty, — Jipplication. — hferences. Page 97 CHAP. IV.
OF THE EQUALITY OF MANKIND.
Phyfcal equality. — ObjeBion. — Anfwers. — Moral equality. — How limited. — Province of political jujlice. 1 04 RIGHTS OF MAN.
The quefiion flated.— Foundation of fociety. — Oppofte rights impoji^ l,Je, — Conclufon from thefe premifes, — Difcretion confidered.—- Rights of kings. — Immoral confequences of the dodlrine of rights. — Rights of communities. — Ohjediions: i. the right of mutual aid. — Explanation, — Origin of the term, right. — 2. rights of pri- vate judgment and of the prefs, — Explanation. — Reafons of this limitation upon the funSlions of the community: i. the inutility of attempting rejiraint — 2. its pernicious tendency, — Conclufon.
OF THE EXERCISE OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT..
Foundation of virtue, — Human aBions regulated: i. by the nature of things— ^, by pofitive infitution, — Tendency of the latter: i.
CONTENTS.
to excite virtue. — Its equivocal charadler in this refpedl. — 2. fa inform the judgment, — Its inaptitude for that purpofe. — Province of confclence conjidered. — 'Tendency of an Interference with that province, — Recapitulation. — Arguments In favour of poftlve injiltutlon: i. the necejfity of repelling private Injifllce. — Objec- tions: the uncertainty of evidence — the dlverfty of motives — the unfultablenefs of the means of correSilon — either to Imprefs new fentlments — or to ftrengthen old ones. — Punlfhment for the fake of example confdered. — Urgency of the cafe. — 2. rebellion — ^.war. — QbjeSilons. — Reply. Page 120 BOOK III.
PRINCIPLES OF G0VERJSr^/^2NT.
SYSTEMS OF POLITICAL WRITERS.
The queflon fated. — Flrjl hypothejis: government founded in fu- perior frength.— 'Second hypothefs: government ]mt divino. — Third hypothejis: the facial contraSl. — The frjl hypoihefs exa- mined.— The fecond, — Criterion of divine right: i. patriarchal defcent — 2. jujiice. 139 CONTENTS.
CHAP. II.
OF THE SOCIAL CONTRACT.
^enes propofed. — Who are the contraSl'mg parties? — What is the form of engagement? — Over ho%v long a period does the contraSi extend?— ^To how great a variety of propoftions? — Can it extend to laws hereafter to be made? — Addrejfes of adhefon confidersd.. '•r-Power of a. majority^ Page 143 OF PROMISES., 'ihe validity of promifes examined.- — Shown to be inconjifent with- jiiftice — to be foreign to the general good. — Of the expeSlation ex-^ cited. — The fidfilUng expefiation does not imply the validity of a promife, — Conclufon. x^Ot CHAP. IV. OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
Common deliberation the true foundation of government — proved from: the equal claims of mankind— from the nature of our faculties — from the objeSi of government— from the effeSls of common delibe- ration.^— 'Delegation vindicated. — Difference between the dodlrine here maintained and that of a facial contraSi apparent — from the merely profpe5iive nature of the former— from the nullity of pro- mifes—from the fallibility _ of deliberation, — Conclufon. is 7 C H A Pg.
CONTENTS.
OF LEGISLATION.
Society can declare and inter pret^ but cannot ena£l,—Its authority only executive. Page i66 CHAP. VI. OF OBEDIENCE.
Obedience not the correlative of authority. — No man bound to yield obedience to another. — Cafe of fubmijjion conjidered. — Foundation of obedience. — Ufefulnefs of facial communication. — Cafe of confi- dence conjidered. — Its limitations. — Mifchief of unlimited confi- dence.— SubjeSlion explained. igg APPENDIX.
Moral principles frequently elucidated by incidental refleSiion — by in- cidental pajfages in various authors. — Example. lyQ CHAP. VII.
OF FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.
'Argument in favour of a variety of forms — compared with the ar- gument in favour cj a variety of religious creeds. — That there is one bejl form of government proved—from the unity of truth — from the nature of man. — QbjeSlion from human iveakncfs ana prejudice. — Danger in efiaUi/lmg an imperfedi code. — Manners e of CONTENTS.
of nations produced by their forms of government. — Gradual im- provement necejfary. — Simplicity chiefly to be defired. — Publi- cation of truth the grand in/irument — by individuals, not by go- vernment— the truth entire, and not by parcels.— Sort of progrefs to be defired. Page 179 BOOK IV.
MISCELLANEOUS PRINCIPLES.
OF RESISTANCE.
Every individual the judge of his own refjldnce, — Objel^ion. — uinfwered from the nature of government— from the modes of re- fflance. — i. Force rarely to be employed — either where there is fmall profpeSi offuccefs — or where the profpedl is great. — Hijiory of Charles the firji eflimated. — 2. Reafoning the legitimate mode. 19^ CHAP.
CONTENTS.
CHAP. II.
OF REVOLUTIONS.
SECTION I.
DUTIES OF A CITIZEN.
Obligation to fupport the con/lit ut ion of our country conftdered— mufl arife either from the reafon of the cafe, or from a perfonal and local confideration. — ThefirH examined, — l^hefecond.
Page 198 SECTION II.
MODE OF EFFECTING REVOLUTIONS.
Perfuafon the proper inflrument — not violence — nor refentment, — Latenefs of event defrable. 202 SECTION III.
OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
Meaning of the term. — j^Jfociations objeBed to — i. from the fort of perfons with "whom a juf revolution fould originate — 1. frotn the danger of tumult. — ObjeBs of association. — In what cafes ad~ mijjible. — Argued for from the necefjlty to give weight to opinion —from their tendency to af certain opitiion. — UnnecejJ'ary for thefe purpofes. — General inutility. — ConceJJions. — Importance of facial ctmmunication. — Propriety of teaching refjlance confdered. 205 ca SECTION CONTENTS.
SECTION IV. OF THE SPECIES OF REFORM TO BE DESIRED.
Ought it to be -bartial or entire? — Truth may not be partially taught, — Partial refbrmation confidered. — Objection. — Anfwer. — Partial reform indifperjible. — Nature of a juji revolution — how dijlantf Page 219 CHAP. III. OF TYRANNICIDE.
D'roerfty of opinions on this fuhjeEl. — Argument in its vindication. — • 'The defnidllon of a tyrant not a cafe of exception. — Confequences of tyrannicide, — AJaJfmation defcribed. — Importance of fncerity, OF THE CULTIVATION OF TRUTH. SECTION I. OF ABSTRACT OR GENERAL TRUTH. Its importance as conducing — to our intelledtual improvement — to our moral improvement, — Virtue the hejifource of happinefs. — Proved by comparifon — by its manner of adapting itfelf to all ftuatwns — by its undecaying excellence — cannot be effeBlually propagated but by a cultivated mind, — Importance of general truth 4o our political improvement. ^3^ CONTENTS.
Nature of this virtue. — Its effects — upo?i our own aollons—upon our neighbours. — Its tendency to produce fortitude. — EfeSls ofin- fincerity.' — CharaSler which fncerity 'would acquire to him who praStifed it. — Objedlions. — The fear of giving unnecefjary pain. — Anfwer, — "Tbe defre of prefer ving my life. — '^his objeSiion proves too much. — Anfwer. — Secrecy corfdered. — I^he fecrets of others^ — State fecrets. — Secrets of philanthropy. Page 238 APPENDIX, No. I.
OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN UNDERSTANDING AND VIRTUE.
Can eminent virtue exifl unconnedled with talents? — Nature of virtue. — // is the offspring of under/landing. — // generates imder- (ianding. — Illuf ration from other purfuits — love — ambition — applied.
Can eminent talents exifl unconneSled with virtue f — Argument in the affirmative from analogy — in the negative from the iiniver- fality of moral fpeculation— -from the nature cfvice as founded i?i mijiake. — T^he argument balanced, — Importance of a fenfe of jufice. — Its connexion with talents. — Illiberality with which men of talents are ufually treated. 253 APPENDIX.
CONTENTS.
APPENDIX, No. II. OF THE MODE OF EXCLUDING VISITORS.
Its impropriety argued— from thejituation in 'which it places^ I. the ruijitor — 2. thefervant. — Objediions: — Pretended necejjity of this praSiice^ i. to preferve us from intrufion — 2. to free us from dif agreeable acquaintance. — CharaSiers of the honefl and di/honejl man in this refpeSi compared. Page 265 APPENDIX, No. III.
SUBJECT OF SINCERITY RESUMED.
A cafe propofed. — Arguments in favour of concealment. — Previous que/lion: Is truth in general to be partially communicated? — Cuflomary effeSis of fncerity — of in/inceriiy — upon him who praSiifes it — i. the ftfpenjion of improvement — 2. mifanthropy — 3. difingenuity — upon the fpeSiators. — Sincerity delineated. — Its general importance. — Application. — Duty refpeSling the choice of a refdence. 272 OF FREE WILL AND NECESSITY.
Importance of the que/lion. — Definition of neceffity. — Why fuppofed to exifi- in the operations of the material univerfe. — T^he cafe of the operations of mind is parallel. — Indications of necejjity — in hi/lory — in our judgments of character — in our fchemes of policy — incur ideas CONTENTS.
ideas of moral difcipline. — ObjeSilon from the fallibility of our ex- peSlations in human condu5i. — Anfwer. — Origin and univerfality of the fentiment of free will. — 'The fentiment ofnecejjlty alfo uni- verfal. — The truth of this fentiment argued from the nature of volition. — Hypothefs of free ivill examined. — Self-determination. — Indifference. — The will not a difin£t faculty, — Free will dif- advantageous to its poffeffor — of no fervice to morality. Page 2 8 3 INFERENCES FROM THE DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY' Idea it fuggefs to us of the univerfe. — Influence on our moral ideas — a£iion — virtue — exertion — perfuafion — exhortation — ardour — complacence and averfon — punfiiment — repentance — praife and blame — intelleSfual tranquillity. — Language of neceffiiy re commended. 3^5 CHAP. VII.
OF THE MECHANISM OF THE HUMAN MIND.
Nature of mechanifm. — Its clajfes, material and intelleElual. — Material fyfem, or of vibrations. — The intelkSlual fyfetn mofl probable — from the confideratlon that thought would otherwife be a fuperfluity—from the eflabliffed principles of reafo?iing from effeSls to caufes. — Objedlions refuted. — Thoughts 'which produce animal motion may be — i. Involuntary, — All animal motions were firjt involuntary. — 2. Unattended with confcioufnefs, — The mind CONTENTS.
mind CONTENTS.
mind cannot have more than one thought at any one time.'— Ob- jeSiion to this aj^ertion from the cafe of complex ideas— from various mental operations — as comparifon — apprehenjion — rapidity of the fuccefjion of ideas. — Application. — Duration meafured by confcioufnefs, — 3. A difinSl thought to each motion may be unneceffary — apparent from the complexity of fenfible imprefjions. — The mind always thinks. — Conclufon. — The theory applied to the phenomenon of walking — to the circulation of the blood,— 'Of motion in general, — Of dreams. Page 318 CHAP. VIII.
OF THE PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUE.
Hypothefes of benevolence and felf love—fuperiority of the former. — A£lion is either voluntary or involuntary, — Nature of the firfl of thefe clajjes. — Argument that refults from it. — Voluntary a£lion has a realexifence, — Confequence of that exiflence. — Experimental view of the fubjeSl, — Suppoftions fuggefed by the advocates of felf love — that we calculate upon all occa/ions the advantage to accrue to us, — Falfenefs of this fuppofition. — Suppoftion of a con- trary fort. — We do not calculate what would be the uneafnefs to refult from our refraining to a£l — either in relieving dijlrefs — or in adding to the fock of general good. — Uneafinefs an accidental member of the procefs, — The fuppoftions incoffijlently blended. — Scheme of felf love reconnnended from the propenfty of mind to 6 abbreviate CONTENTS.
abbreviate its procefs—from the JimpUcity that obtains in the natures of things, — Hypothejis of Jelf love incompatible 'with virtue. — Conclujbn. — Importance of the quefion. — Application, Page 341 CHAP. IX.
OF THE TENDENCY OF VIRTUE.
// is the road to happinefs — to the efeem and affeSiion of others. —. Objection from mifconjirudlion and calumny. — Anfwer. — Virtue compared with other modes of procuring efeem. — Vice and mi virtue is the fubjeSl of obloquy — infanced in the hafe alloy with which our virtues are mxed — in arrogance and ofentation — in the vices in which perfons of moral excellence allow themf elves. — The virtuous man only has friends. — Virtue the road to profperity and fuccefs in the world — applied to commercial iranfadtions — to cafes that depend upon patronage.— ^Apparent exceptions ivhere the dependent is employed as the infrument of vice. — Virtue compared with other modes of becoming profperous. ■ — Source of the difrepute of virtue in this refpedl. — ConceJJion. — Cafe where convenient vice bids fair for concealment- — Chance of deteSiion. — Indolence — apprehenfivenefs-^and depravity the off- fpring of vice, 362 AN A K ENQUIRY CONCERNING POLITICAL JUSTICE.
OF THE IMPORrjNCE OF POLITICAL INSTITUriOm.
INTRODUCTION.
THE SUBJECT PROPOSED. — SYSTEM OF INDIFFERENCE — OF PASSIVE OBEDIENCE — OF LIBERTY. — SYSTEM OF LIBERTY EXTENDED.
THE queftion which firfl: prefents itfelf in an enquiry con- BOOK I. ceming political inflitution, relates to the importance of ^.^ ■> The fubjeft the topic which is made the fubje'St of enquiry. All men will propofed. grant that the happinefs of the human fpecies is the moft defir- able objed for human fcience to promote; and that intelleiilual and moral happinefs or pleafure is extremely to be preferred B to 2 introduction; BOOK 1. to tliofe which are precarious and tranfitory. The methods' **— -V ' which may be propofed for the attainment of this objeft, are: various. If it could be proved that a found political inftitutioa was of all others the moft powerful engine for promoting indi- vidual good, or on the other hand that an erroneous and corrupt government was the moft formidable adverfary to the improve- ment of the fpecies, it would follow that politics was the firft and moft important fubjed of human inveftigation..
Syacm of in- Ihe Opinions of mankind in this refpeit have been divided,..
ditierence:.
By one fet of men it is affirmed, that the different degrees of excellence afcribed to different forms of government are rather imaginary than real;, that in the great obje.ds of fuperintendance no government will eminently fail; and that it is neither the duty nor- the wifdom of an honeft and indliftrious individual to bufv himfelf with concerns fo foreign to the fphere. of his in-- ©fpaffive duftry. A fecond clafs, in adopting the fame principles, have obcdienct: given to them a different turn. Believing that all governments are nearly equal in their merit,, they have regarded anarchy as the only political mifchief that deferved to excite alarm, and have been th-e zealous and undiftinguiftiing adverfaries of all inno- vation. Neither of thefe clafles has of courfe been inclined to afcribe to the fcience and pradlce of politics a pre-eminence, over every other.
of liberty*. But the advocates of what is termed political liberty have al- a. ways.
INTRODUCTION.
■ways been numerous. They have placed this liberty prlnclpallv BOOK I.
m two articles; the lecurity ot our perfons, and the lecurity of *- —. •-■' our property. They have perceived that thefe objeds couid not be efFeded but by the impartial adminiftration of general laws, and the invefting in the people at large a certain power fuffi- cient to give permanence to this adminifli-ation. They have pleaded, fome for a lefs and fome for a greater degree of equa- lity among the members of the community; and they have confidered this equality as infringed or endangered by enormoui taxation, and the prerogatives and privileges of monarchs and ariftocratical bodies.
But, while they have been thus ^xtenfive in the objed of their ■demand, they feem to have agreed with the two former claffes in regarding politics as an obje£l of fubordinate importance, and only in a remote degree conneded with moral improvement. They have been prompted in their exertions rather by a quick fenfe of juftlce and difdain of opprefTion, than by a confcioufnefs of the intimate connexion of the different parts of the focial fyftem, whether as it relates to the intercourfe of individuals, or to the maxims and inftitutes of ftates and nations *.
It may however be reafonable to confider whether the fcience Syftcm ofll- of politics be not of Ibmewhat greater value than any of thefe ed.
* Thefe remarks will apply to the Enghfli writers upon pohtics in general, from Sydney and Locke to the author of the Rights of Man. The more com- ptehenfive view has been perfpicuoufly treated by RoulTeau and Helvetius.
BOOK I. reafoners have been inclined to fufped. It may fairly be quef- ^'^ — '^-— ' tioned, whether government be not ftill naore confiderable in Its incidental efFedbs, than in thofe intended to be produced. Vice, for example, depends for its exiftence upon the exiftence of temptation. May not a good government ftrongly tend to ex- tirpate, and a bad one to increafe the mafs of temptation? Again, vice depends for its exiftence upon the exiftence of error. May not a good government by taking avfay all reftraints upon the ' enquiring mind haften, and a bad one by its patronage of error' procraftinate the difcovery and eftablifhment of truth? Let us- confider the fubje£t in this point of view. If it can be proved* that the fcience of politics is thus unlimited in its importance,, the advocates of liberty will have gained an additional recom- mendation, and its admirers will be incited with the greater fagernefs'to the inveftigation of its principles.
G H A E HISTORY OF POLITICAL SOCIETY.