Now the action of the limbs and members of the body is infinitely improved by those exercises in which the schoolboy becomes engaged during his hours of play. In the $rst place it is to be con- sidered that we do those things most thoroughly and in the shortest tinie^ which are spontaneous^ the result of our own volition; and such are the cg^ercises in which th^ schoolboy engages during this period, tjis heart and soul are in wh^t he does. The id^an or the boy must be a poor creature in- deedy who n^ver 4pes ^ny thing but as he is bid by anpljiiei:* It is in his volunt^iry ^ts and his sports^ •thftt he learns the skilful and effective use of his ^ye li^d his limbs. If e selects his mark^ apfl he hits it. He tri$s agMn aii4 ^^^in^ effort after effort, ^nd day after d^y^ till he has surniounted the difficulty ^ the atteptpt, and the rebellion pf his member^. Every articul^tipn an4 muscle of his jErafoe is called into action, till aU ^p obedient tp the master-will; and his limbs are lubricated and rendered pliant by 16d OF LEISURE. [£S»AY exercise, as the limbs of the Grecian athleta were lubricated with oil.
Thus he acquires, first dexterity of motion, and next, which is of no less importance, a confidence in his own powers, a consciousness that he is able to efiect what he purposes, a calmness and serenity which resemble the sweeping of the area, and scat- tering of the saw-dust, upon which the dancer or the athlete is to exhibit with grace, strength and effect.
So much for the advantages reaped by the school- boy during his hours of play as to the maturing his bodily powers, and the improvement of those £Eiculties of his mind which more immediately apply to the exercise of his bodily powers.
But, beside this, it is indispensible to the well- being and advantage of the individual, that he should employ the faculties of his mind in sponta- neous exertions. I do not object, especially during the period of nonage, to a considerable degree of dependence and control. But his greatest advance- ment, even then, seems to aride from the interior impulses of his mind. The schoolboy exercises his wit, and indulges in sallies of the thinking princi- ple. This is wholsome; this is fresh; it has twice the quickness, clearness and decision in it, that are to be found in those act« of the mind which are employed about the lessons prescribed to him.
In school our youth are employed about the IxJ] OF LEISURE. 16d thongfats^ the acts and suggestions of other menl This is all mimicry, and a sort of second-hand busi- ness. It resembles the proceeding of the fresh- listed soldier at drill; he has ever his eye on hid right-hand man, and does not raise his arm, nor advance his foot, nor move his finger, but as h^ sees another perform the same motion before him. It is when the schoolboy proceeds to the play- ground, that he engages in real action and real dis- cussion. It is then that he is an absolute humaii being and a genuine individual.
The debates of schoolboys, their discussions whai they shall do, and how it shall be done, are antici- patipns of the scenes of maturer life. They are th^ dawnings of committees, and vestries, and hundred- courts, and ward-motes, and folk-motes, and parlia- ments. When boys consult when and where their next cricket-match shall be played, it may be re- garded as the embryo representation of a consult respecting a grave enterprise to be formed, or a colony to be planted. And, when they enquire re- specting poetry and prose, and figures and tropes, and the dictates of taste, this happily prepares theni for the investigations of prudence, and morals, and religious principles, and what is science, and what is truth.
It is thus that the wit of man, to use the word in the old Saxon sense, begins to be cultivated. One boy gives utterance to an assertion; and anothei^ joins issue with him, and retorts. The wheels o^ 170 OF L£ISUR£. [essay the engine of the brain are set in niotioni and^ with«- out force, perform their healthful revolutions. The stripling feels himself called upon to exert his pre- sence of mind, and becomes conscious of the ue* cessity of an immediate reply, liike the unfledged bird, he spreads his wing3, aud ^^ys their powers. He does not answer, like a boy in his class, who tasks his understanding or not, as the whim of the moment shall prompt him, where one boy honestly performs to the extent of his ability, and others disdain the empire assumed over them, and get off as cheaply as they can. He is no longer under review, but is engaged in real action. The debate of the schoolboy is the combat of the in- tellectual gladiator, where he fences and pame« and thrusts with all the skill and judgment he posr jsesses.
There is another way in which the schoolboy exercises his powers during his periods of leisure. He is often in society; but he is ever and anon i4 solitude* At no period of hnman life are bur ^i'eve- ries $0 free and untrammeled, as at the period here spoken of. He climbs the mountain-cliff, and pe- netrates into the depths of the woods. His joints are well strung; be is a stranger to fatigue. He rushes down the precipice, and mounts again with ease, as though he bad the wii^gs of a bird. He rununates, and pursues hb own trains of reflection and discovery, " e;s;hausting worlds," as it appeals to him, " and then imagining new.'' He hovers on IX.] OF L£I8UR£« 171 the brink of the deepest philosophy, enquiriog hcrtf came I here^ and to what end. He becomes a cas- tle-builder^ constructing imaginary colleges and states, and searching out the businesses in which they are to be employed, and the schemes by which they are to be r^vlated. He thinks what he would do, if he posseiE^ed uncontrolable strength, if he could fly, if he could make himself invisible. In ihis train of mind he cons his first lessons of liberty and independence. He learns self-reverence, and says to himself, I also am an artist, and a maker. He ruffles himself under the yoke, and feels thai he suffers foul tyranny when he is driven, and when brute force is exercised upon him, to compel him to a certain course, or to chastise his faults, irnpu^ ted or real.
Such are the benefits of leisure to the schoolboy: and they are not less to man when arrived at years of distcretipn. It is good for us to have some regu*- lar and stated occupation. Man may be practically too free; this is frequently the case with those wjio have been nurtured in the lap of opulence and Ixxk^ ury. We were sent into the world under the con- dition, '^ In the sweat of thy brow shalt thou -eat bread/' And those who, by the artificial institutions of society, are discharged from this necessity, are placed in a critical and perilous situation. Thejs are bound, if they would coAsult their own well-^ being, to contrive for themselves a factitious ne^ cessity, that may stand -them in the place of that 172 OF LEISURE. [essay Necessity which is imposed without appeal on the vast majority of their brethren.
But^ if it is desirable that every man should have some regular and stated occupation, so it is cer^^ taihly not less desirable, that every man should have his seasons of relaxation and leisure. Unhappy is the wretch, whose condition it is to be perpetually bound to the oar, and who is condemned to labour in one certain mode," during all the hours that are hot claimed by sleep, or as long as the muscles of his frame, or the fibres of his fingers will enable him to persevere. " Apollo himself,** says the poet, " does not always bend the bow.** There should be a season, when the mind is free as air, when not only we should follow without restraint any train of thinking or action, within the bounds of sobriety, and that is not attended with injury to others, that our own minds may suggest to us, but should sa- crifice at the shrine of intellectual liberty, and spread our wings, and take our flight into untried regions. It is good for man that he should feel himself at some time unshackled and autocratical, that he should say. This I do, because it is pre-* scribed to me by the conditions without which I cannot exist, or by the election which in past time I deliberately made; and this, because it is dictated by the present frame of my spirit, and is therefore that in which the powers my nature has entailed upon me may be most fully manifested. In addi- tion to which we are to consider, that a certain va-^ 1]^.] OF LEISURE. 173 liety and mutation of employments is best adapted to humanity. When my mind or toy body seems to be overwrought by one species of occupation, the substitution of another will often impart to me new life, and make me feel as fresh as if no la,bout had before engaged me. For all these reasons it is to be desired, that we should possess the inestimable privilege of leisure, that in the revolving hours of «very day a period should arrive, at which we should lay down the weapons of our labour, and engage in a sport that may be uo less active and strenuolis than the occupation which preceded it.
A question, which deserves our attention in this place, is, how much of every day it behoves us to give to regular and stated occupation, and how much is the just and legitimate province of leisure. It has been remarked in a preceding Essay % that, if my main and leading pursuit is literary composition, two or three hours in the twenty-four will often be as much as can advantageously and effectually be so Tcmplpyed. But this will unavoidably vary accord- ing to the nature of the occupation: the period above named may be taken as the minimum.
Such, let us say, is the portion of time which the man of letters is called on to devote to literary composition.
It may next be fitting to enquire as to the hum- bler classes of society, and those persons who are engaged in the labour of the hands, how much time they ought to be expected to constttoe in' their re- gular and stated occupations, and' how much would remain to them for relaxation and leisure, it has been said ^, t3iat half an hour in the day given by every member of the community to manual labour, might be sufficient for supplying the whole with the absolute necessaries of life. Biit thdre are va- rious considerations that* would inevitably lengdien this period. In a community which has made any considerable advance in the race of civilisatioti, many individuals must be expected to be excused from any portion of manual labour. It is not de- sii^ble thiat any community shoidd be contented to supply itself with necessaries only. Ther^ are'niany refinements in life, and many advances in literature and the arts,.which indispensibly conduce to the rendering mail in society a nobler and more exalted t^eature than he could other* wise be; and these ought not to be consigned t6 neglect.
On the other ^fiand however i it is certain, thdt m;ach of the -ostentation and a multitude of the luxuries which subsist in European and Asiatic so^ ciety are just topics* of regret, and that, if ever -those improvements in civilisation take pl^ce wliich phi- losophy has essayed to delineate, there would be a great abridgment of the manual labour that we now see around us, and the humbler classes of the com^ munity would enter into' the inheritance of a more »» Political Justicc/Book VIII, Chap. VI.
cottsideMble 'portion of leisure than at present falls to thdr 'lot. » ''Btit it has been much the habit^ for persons not belonging to the fanmbler classes of the commonity^ and who jHrofess to speculate upon the genuine iiifer^ts of human society^ to suppose/ however dertain intervalis of leisure may conduce to the be* nefit of men whose tastes have been cultivated and refiil^d3 and who' from education have many re4 sources of liteMtti^ and Teflection at all times at their beck, yet that leisure might prove rather per« iiidous than otherwiseto the uneducated and the ignonmt. Let us enquire then >how these persons would be likely to employ the remainder of their tkttey if they had a greater poortion of leisure than thfey at present enjoy. — ^I would add, that the indi* vidUals of the humbler classes ^of ihe community nieed tiot for ever to merit the appellation of the tilneducated and ignorant. »: In the first place/ they would engage, like the schoolboy, in active sports, thereby giving to their limbs, which, in rural occupation and mechanical labour^ aire somewhat too monotonously employed, and contract the stiffness and experience the waste of a premature old age, the activity and freedom of an athlete^ a cricketer, or a hunter. Nor do these occupations only conduce to the health of the body^ they also impart a spirit and a juvenile earnestness to the mind.
In the next place, they may be expected to de- 176 OF LEISURE. [essay vote a part of the day, more than they do at pre- sent, to their wives and families, cultivatiilg the domestic affections, watching the expanding bodies and minds of their children, leading them on in the road of improvement, warning them against the perils with which they are surrounded, and observ- ing with somewhat of a more jealous and parental care, what it is for which by their individual qua- lities they are best adapted, and in what particular walk of life they may most advantageously be en- gaged. Hie father and the son would ^ow Jn n much greater degree friends, anticipating each other^s wishes, and sympathising in each other's pleasures and pains.
Hiirdly, one infallible consequence of a greater degree of leisure in the lower classes would be that reading would become a more common propensity and amusement. It is the aphorism of one of the most enlightened of my contemporaries, "The .schoolmaster is abroad:'' and many more than at present would desire to store up in their little hoard a certain portion of the general improvement. We should no longer have occasion to say.
But knowledge to their eyes her ample page^ Rich with the spoils of time, did ne*er unrol.
Nor should we be incited to fear that ever wakeful anticipation of the illiberal, that, by the too great difiusion of the wisdom of the wise, we might cease to have a race of men adapted to the ordinary pur- suits of life. Our ploughmen and artificers, who IX.] OF LEISURE. 177 obtained the improvements of intellect through the medium of leisure, would have already received their destination, and formed their habits, and would be disposed to consider the new lights that were open- ed upon them, as the ornament of existence, not its substance. Add to which, as leisure became more abundant, and the opportunities of intellec- tual improvement increased, they would have less motive to repine at their lot. It is principally while knowledge and information arfe new, that they are likely to intoxicate the brain of those to whose share they have fallen; and, when they are made a common stock upon which all men may draw, sound thinking and sobriety may be expected to be the general result.
One of the scenes to which the leisure of the laborious classes is seen to induce them to resort, is the public-housQ; and it is inferred that, if their leisure were greater, a greater degree of drunken- ness, dissipation and riot would inevitably prevail.
In answer to this anticipation, I would in the first place assert, that the merits and demerits of the public-house are very unjustly rated by the fastidi- ous among the more favoured orders of society.
We ought to consider that the opportunities and amusements of the lower orders of society are few. They do not frequent coffee-houses; theatres and places of public exhibition are ordinarily too ex- pensive for them; and they cannot engage in rounds of visiting, thus cultivating a private and familiar N 178 OF LEISURE. [essay intercourse with the few whose conversation might be most congenial to them. We certainly bear hard upon persons in this rank of society, if we expect that they should take all the severer labour, and have no periods of unbending and amusement.
But in reality what occurs in the public-house we are too much in the habit of calumniating. If we would visit this scene, we should find it pretty ex- tensively a theatre of eager and earnest discussion* It is here that the ardent and " unwashed artificer,** and the sturdy husbandman, compare notes and measiire wits with each other. It is their arena of intellectual combat, the ludiss lUerarius of their un- refined university. It is here they learn to think. Their minds are awakened from the sleep of igno- rance; and their attention is turned into a thousand channels of improvement. They study the art of speaking, of question, allegation and rejoinder. They fix their thought steadily on the statement that is made, acknowledge its force, or detect its insufficiency. They examine the most interesting topics, and form opinions the result of that exa- mination. They learn maxims of life, and become politicians. They canvas the civil and criminal laws of their country, and learn the value of political liberty. They talk over measures of state, judge of the intentions, sagacity and sincerity of public men, and are likely in time to become in no contemptible degree capable of estimating what modes of con- ducting national affairs, whether for the preserva- IX«] OF LEISURE. 179 tion of the rights of all, or for the vindication and assertion of justice between man and man, may be expected to be crowned with the greatest success: in a word, they thus become, in the best sense of the word, citizens.
As to excess in drinking, the same thing may be expected to occur here, as has been remarked of late years in better company in England. In pro- portion as the understanding is cultivated, men are found to be less the victims of drinking and the grosser provocatives of sense. The king of Persia of old made it his boast that he could drink large quantities of liquor with greater impunity than any of his subjects. Such was not the case with the more polished Greeks. In the dark ages the most glaring enormities of that kind prevailed. Under our Charles the Second coarse dissipation and riot characterised the highest circles. Rochester, the most accomplished man and the greatest wit of our island, related of himself that, for five years toge- ther^ he could not affirm that for any one day he had been thoroughly sober. In Ireland, a country less refined than our own, the period is not long past, when on convivial occasions the master of the house took the key from his door, that no one of his guests might escape without having had his dose. No small number of the contemporaries of my youth fell premature victims to the intempe- rance which was then practised. Now wine is merely used to excite a gayer and livelier tone of n2 n2 180 OF L£ISUR£. [essAV the spirits; and inebriety is scarcely known in the higher circles. In like manner, it may readily be believed that, as men in the lower classes of society become less ignorant and obtuse, as their thoughts are less gross, as they wear off the vestigia rurisy the remains of a barbarous state, they will find less need to set their spirits afloat by this animal excite- ment, and will devote themselves to those thoughts and that intercourse which shall inspire them with better and more honourable thoughts of our com- mon nature.
X.] OF IMITATION AND INVENTION. 181 ESSAY X.
OF IMITATION AND INVENTION.
»• Of the sayings of the wise men of former times none has been oftener repeated than that of Solo- mon^ " The thing that hath been, is that which is; and that which is done, is that which shall be done; and there is no new thing under the sun.*' The books of the Old Testament are apparently a collection of the whole literary remains of an an- cient and memorable people, whose wisdom may fiirnish instruction to us,*and whose poetry abounds in lofty flights and sublime imagery. How this col- lection came indiscriminately to be considered as written by divine inspiration, it is difficult to pro- nounce. The history of the Jews, as contained in the Books of Kings and of Chronicles, certainly did not require the interposition of the Almighty for its production; and the pieces we receive as the compositions of Solomon have conspicuously the air of having emanated from a conception entirely human.
In the book of Ecclesiastes, from which the above sentence is taken, are many sentiments not in accordance with the religion of Christ. For example; ^^ That which befalleth the sons of men, befalleth beasts; as the one dieth, so dieth the 1B2 OF IMITATION AND INVENTION, [essAY Other; yea, they have all one breath, so that a man hath no preeminence above a beast: all go to one place; all are of the dust, and turn to dust again. Wherefore I perceive that there is nothing better, than that a man should rejoice in his works/' And again; " The living know that they shall die; but the dead know not any thing; their love, and their hatred, and their envy are perished; neither have they any more a reward." Add to this; '* Whewh fore I praise the dead which are already dead, mx^ce than the living which are yet alive: yea, better is he than both they, which hath not yet been." There can therefore be no just exception taken against our allowing ourselves freely to canvas the maxim cited at the head of this Essay.
It certainly contains a sufficient quantity of un* questionable truth, to induce us to regard it as springing from profound observation, and compre- hensive views of what is acted " under the sun."
A wise man would look at the labours of his own species, in much the same spirit as he would view an ant-hill through a microscope. He would aee them tugging a grain of corn up a declivity; he would see the tracks that are made by those who go, and who return; their incessant activity; and would find one day the copy of that which went before; and their labours ending in nothing; I mean, in nothing that shall carry forward the ina- provement of the head and the heart, either in the individual or society, or that shall add to the cOie X.] OF IMITATION AND INVENTION. 183 veniences of life^ or the better providing for the welfare of eommtmities of men. He would smile at their earnestness and zeal, all spent in supplying the necessaries of the day, or, at most, providing for the revolution of the seasons, or for that ephe* meral thing we call the life of man.
Few things can appear more singular, when duly analysed, than that articulated air, which we deno- minate speech. It is not to be wondered at that we are proud of the prerogative, which so eminently distinguishes us from the rest of the animal crea- tion. The dog, the cat, the horse, the bear, the lion, all of them have voice. But we may almost consider this as their reproach. They can utter fo« the greater part but one monotonous, eternal sound* The lips, the teeth, the palate, the throat, which in man are instruments of modifying the voice in such endless variety, are in this respect given to them in vain: while all the thoughts that occur, at least to the bulk of mankind, we are able to express in words, to communicate facts, feelings, passions^ sentiments, to discuss, to argue, to agree, to issue commands on the one part, and report the execu- tion on the other, to inspire lofty conceptions, to excite the deepest feeling of commiseration, and to thrill the soul with extacy, almost too mighty to be endured.
Yet what is human speech for the most part but mere imitation? In the most obvious sense this stands out on the surface. We learn the same 184 OF IMITATION AND INVENTION. [ESSAY words^ we speak the same language, as our elders. Not only our words, but our phrases are the same. We are like players, who come out as if they were real persons, but only utter what is set down for them. We represent the same drama every day; and, however stale is the eternal repetition, pass it off upon others, and even upon ourselves, as if it were the suggestion of the moment. In reality, in rural or vulgar life, the invention of a new phrase ought to be marked down among the memorable things in the calendar. We afford too much honour to ordinary conversation, when we compare it to the exhibition of the recognised theatres; since men ought for the most part to be considered as no more than puppets. They perform the gesticu- lations; but the words come from some one else, who is hid from the sight of the general observer. And not only the words, but the cadence: they have not even so much honour as players have, to choose the manner they may deem fittest by which to convey the sense and the passion of what they speak. The pronunciation, the dialect, all, are sup- plied to them, and are but a servile repetition. Our tempers are merely the work of the transcriber. We are angry, where we saw that others were angry; and we are pleased, because it is the tone to be pleased. We pretend to have each of us a judgment of our own: but in truth we wait with the most patient docility, till he whom we regard as the leader of the chorus gives us the signal.
xJ] OF IMITATION AND INVENTION. 185 Here you are to applaud, and Here you are to con* demn.
What is it that constitutei^ the manners of na- tions^ by which the people of one country are so eminently distinguished from the people of another^ so that you cannot cross the channel from Dover to Calais, twenty-one miles, without finding your- self in a new world? Nay, I need not go among the subjects of another government to find ex- amples of this; if I pass into Ireland, Scotland or Wajes, I see myself surrounded with a new people, all of whose characters are in a manner cast in one mould, and all different from the citizens of the principal state and from one another. We may go further than this. Not only nations, but classes of men, are contrasted with each other. What can be more diffierent than the gentry of the west end of tl^is metropolis, and the money-making dwellers in the east? From them I will pass to Billingsgate and Wapping. What more unlike than a soldier and a sailor? the children of fashion that stroll in St. James's and Hyde Park, and the care-worn hirelings, that recreate themselves, with their wives and their brats, with a little firesh air on a Sunday near Islington? The houses of lords and commons have each their characteristic manners. Each pro- fession has its own, the lawyer, the divine, and the man of medicine. We are all apes, fixing our eyes upon a model, and copying him, gesture by gesture; We are sheep, rushing headlong through the gap, 186 OF IMITATION AND INVENTION. [ESSAY when the bell-wether shews us the way. We are choristers^ mechanically singing in a certain key, and giving breath to a certain tone.
Our religion, our civil practices, our political creed, are all imitation. How many men are there, that have examined the evidences of their religious belief, and can give a sound ^^ reason of the faitii that IS in them r When I was a child, I was taught that there were four religions in the world, the Popish, the Plrotestant, the Mahometan, the Pagan. It is a phenomenon to find the man, who has held the balance steadily, and rendered full and exact justice to the pretensions of each of these. No: tell me the longitude and latitude in which a man is bom, and I will tell you his religion.
By education most have been misled 3 So they believe, because they so were bred: The priest continues what the nurse began. And thus the child imposes on the man.
And, if this happens, where we are told our evef-> lasting salvation is at issue, we may easily judge of the rest.
The author, with one of whose dicta I begaiB this Essay, has observed, " One generation passetb away, and another generation cometh; but the eartli abideth for ever.*' It is a maxim of the English constitution, that '^ the king never dies;" and the same may with nearly equal propriety be observed of every private man, especially if he have children^ *' Death," say the writers of natural history, '*is the xj OF miTATION AND INVENTION. 187 generator of life:'' and what is thus true of animal ccorruption^ may with small variation be affirmed of human mortality. I turn off my footman^ and hiriB another; and he puts on the Uvery of his prede- cessor: he thinks himself somebody; but he is only % tenant. The same thing is true^ when a country- gentleman^ a noble^ a bishop^ or a king dies. He puts off his garments, and another puts them on. Every one knows the story of the Tartarian dervise^ who mistook the royal palace for a caravansera, and who proved to his majesty by genealogical deduc- tioQ^ that he was only a lodger. In this sense the mutability^ which so eminently characterises every thing sublunary, is immutability under another name.
The most calamitous^ and the most stupendous scenes are nothing but an eternal and wearisome ^ repetition: executions, murders, plagues, famine and battle. Military execution, the demolition of cities^ the conquest of nations^ have been acted a himdred times before. The mighty conqueror, who ^^ smote the people in wrath with a continual stroke/' who " sat in the seat of God, shewing himself that he was God," and assuredly persuaded himself that he was doing something to be had in everlasting remembrance, only did that which a hundred other vulgar conquerors had done in successive ages of the world, whose very names have long since perish- ed from the records of mankind.
Thus it is that the human species is for ever en- 188 OF IMITATION AND INVENTION. [essaY gaged in laborious idleness. We put our shoulder to the wheel, and raise the vehicle out of the mire in which it was swallowed, and we say, I have done something; but the same feat under the same cir- cumstances has been performed a thousand times before. We make what strikes us as a profound observation; and, when fairly analysed, it turns out to be about as sagacious, as if we told whafs o'clock, or whether it is rain or sunshine. Nothing can be more delightfully ludicrous, than the impor- tant and emphatical air with which the herd of mankind enunciate the most trifling observations. With much labour we are delivered of what is to us a new thought; and, after a time, we find the same in a musty volume, thrown by in a comer, and co- vered with cobwebs and dust. This is pleasaintly ridiculed in the well known exclamation, " Deuce take the old fellows who gave utterance to our wit, before we ever thought of it!"