Psychology: Briefer Course. i2mo. New York: Henry Holt & Co.
1892.
The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy.
i2mo. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1897.
Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doc- trine. i6mo. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1898.
Talks to Teachers on Psychology: and to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. i2mo. New York: Henry Holt & Co. 1899.
The Varieties of Religious Experience. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1902.
Pragmatism. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1907.
The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to Pragmatism. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1909.
A Pluralistic Universe. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1909.
Memories and Studies. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1911.
Some Problems in Philosophy. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. i9ri.
Essays in Radical Empiricism. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. I9r2.
Collected Essays and Reviews. 8vo. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1920.
Annotated Bibliography of the Writings of William James.
8vo. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1920.
Letters of William James. Edited, with Biographical Introduction and Notes, lay his son, Henry James. Illustrated. 2 vols. Boston: the Atlantic Monthly Press, Inc. 1920.
The Literary Remains of Henry James. Edited, with an introduc- tion by William James. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. $2.00. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1885.
Selections Habit. i6mo. New York. Henry Holt & Co. 1890.
On Some of Life's Ideals. i6mo. New York: Henry Holt & Co.
1899, 1900.
TALKS TO TEACHERS ON PSYCHOLOGY: AND TO STUDENTS ON SOME OF LIFERS IDEALS* By WILLIAM JAMES NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1922 Q,«=»'}, i*>oc BY WnXIAM JAMES PRESS OF GEO. H. ELLIS CO. (INC.) BOSTON PREFACE.
In 1892 I was asked by the Harvard Corporation to give a few public lectures on psychology to the Cambridge teachers. The talks now printed form the substance of that course, which has since then been dehvered at various places to various teacher-audi- ences. I have found by experience that what my hearers seem least to relish is analytical technicality, and what they most care for is concrete practical application. So I have gradually weeded out the former, and left the latter unreduced; and now, that I have at last written out the lectures, they contain a minimum of what is deemed 'scientific' in psy- chology, and are practical and popular in the ex- treme.
Some of my colleagues may possibly shake their heads at this; but in taking my cue from what has seemed to me to be the feeling of the audiences I be- lieve that I am shaping my book so as to satisfy the more genuine public need.
Teachers, of course, will miss the minute divisions, subdivisions, and definitions, the lettered and num- bered headings, the variations of type, and all the IV PREFACE other mechanical artifices on which they are accus- tomed to prop their minds. But my main desire has been to make them conceive, and, if possible, re- produce sympathetically in their imagination, the mental life of their pupil as the sort of active unity which he himself feels it to be. He doesn't chop himself into distinct processes and compartments; and it would have frustrated this deeper purpose of my book to make it look, when printed, like a Bae- deker's handbook of travel or a text-book of arithme- tic. So far as books printed like this book force the fluidity of the facts upon the young teacher's atten- tion, so far I am sure they tend to do his intellect a service, even though they may leave unsatisfied a craving (not altogether without its legitimate grounds) for more nomenclature, head-lines, and subdivisions.
Readers acquainted with my larger books on Psy- chology will meet much familiar phraseology. In the chapters on habit and memory I have even copied several pages verbatim, but I do not know that apology is needed for such plagiarism as this.
The talks to students, which conclude the volume, were written in response to invitations to deliver 'addresses' to students at women's colleges. The first one was to the graduating class of the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. Properly, it contin- PREFACE V ues the series of talks to teachers. The second and the thu-d address belong together, and continue an- other line of thought.
I wish I were able to make the second, 'On a Cer- tain Blindness in Human Beings,' more impressive. It is more than the mere piece of sentimentalism which it may seem to some readers. It connects itself with a definite view of the world and of our moral relations to the same. Those who have done me the honor of reading my volume of philosophic essays will recognize that I mean the pluralistic or individualistic philosophy. According to that philos- ophy, the truth is too great for any one actual mind, even though that mind be dubbed 'the Absolute,' to know the whole of it. The facts and worths of life need many cognizers to take them in. There is no point of view absolutely public and universal. Pri- vate and uncommunicable perceptions always remain over, and the worst of it is that those who look for them from the outside never know where.
The practical consequence of such a philosophy is the well-known democratic respect for the sacredness of individuality, — is, at any rate, the outward toler- ance of whatever is not itself intolerant. These phrases are so familiar that they sound now rather dead in our ears. Once they had a passionate inner meaning. Such a passionate inner meaning they may VI PREFACE easily acquire again if the pretension of our nation to inflict its own inner ideals and institutions vi et armis upon Orientals should meet with a resistance as obdurate as so far it has been gallant and spirited. Religiously and philosophically, our ancient national doctrine of live and let live may prove to have a far deeper meaning than our people now seem to imagine it to possess.
Cajkbridqe, Mass., March, 1899.
CONTENTS.
TALKS TO TEACHERS.
PAQB I. Psychology and the Teaching Art...3 The American educational organization, 3 — What teachers may expect from psychology, 5 — Teaching methods must agree with psychology, but cannot be immediately deduced therefrom, 7 — The science of teaching and the science of war, 9 — The educational uses of psychology defined, 10 — The teacher's duty toward child-study, 12.
II. The Stream of Consciousness 15 Our mental life is a succession of conscious 'fields,' 15 — They have a focus and a margin, 18 — This description contrasted with the theory of 'ideas,' 20 — Wundt's conclusions, 20, note.
III. The Child as a Behaving Organism...22 Mind as pure reason and mind as practical guide, 22 — The latter view the more fashionable one to-day, 23 — It will be adopted in this work, 24 — Why so? 25 — The teacher's function is to train pupils to behavior, 28.
IV. Education and Behavior 29 Education defined, 29 — Conduct is always its outcome,.'iO — Different national ideals: Germany and England, 31.
VIU CONTENTS PAGE V. The Necessity of Reactions 33 No impression without expression, 33 — Verbal reproduction, 34 — Manual training, 35 — Pupils should know their 'marks,' 37.
VI. Native and Acquired Reactions...38 The acquired reactions must be preceded by native ones, 38 — Illustration: teaching child to ask instead of snatching, 39 — Man has more in- stincts than other mammals, 43.
VII. What the Native Reactions are...45 Fear and love, 45 — Curiosity, 45 — Imitation, 48 — Emulation, 49 — Forbidden by Rousseau, 51 — His error, 52 — Ambition, pugnacity, and pride. Soft pedagogics and the fighting impulse, 54 — Ownership, 55 — Its educational uses, 56 — Con- structiveness, 58 — Manual teaching, 59 — Transi- toriness in instincts, 60 — Their order of succes- sion, 01.
VIII. The Laws of Habit. 64 Good and bad habits, 64 — Habit due to plasti- city of organic tissues, 65 — The aim of education is to make useful habits automatic, 66 — Maxims relative to habit-forming: 1. Strong initiative, 67 — 2. No exception, 68 — 3. Seize first opportunity to act, 69 — 4. Don't preach, 71 — Darwin and poetry: without exercise our capacities decay, 71 — The habit of mental and muscular relaxation, 74 — Fifth maxim, keep the facult.y of effort trained, 75 — Sudden conversions compatible with laws of habit, 76 — Momentous influence of habits on character, 77.
CONTENTS IX PAOB IX. The Association of Ideas 79 A case of habit, 79 — The two laws, contiguity and similarity, 80 — The teacher has to build up useful systems of association, 83 — Habitual asso- ciations determine character, 84 — Indeterminate- ness of our trains of association, 85 — We can trace them backward, but not foretell them, 86 — Interest deflects, 87 — Prepotent parts of the field, 88 — In teaching, multiply cues, 89.
X. Interest 91 The child's native interests, 91 — How uninterest- ing things acquire an interest, 94 — Rules for the teacher, 95 — 'Preparation' of the mind for the lesson: the pupil must have something to attend with, 97 — All later interests are borrowed from original ones, 99.
XI. Attention 100 Interest and attention are two aspects of one fact, 100 — Voluntary attention comes in beats, 101 — Genius and attention, 102 — The subject must change to win attention, 103 — Mechanical aids, 104 — The physiological process, 106 — The new in the old is what excites interest, 108 — In- terest and effort are compatible, 110 — Mind-wan- dering, 112 — Not fatal to mental efliciency, 114.
XII. Memory 116 XII. Memory 116 Due to association, 116 — No recall without a cue, 118 — Memory is due to brain-plasticity, 119 — Native retentiveness, 120 — Number of associa- tions may practically be its equivalent, 122 — Re- tentiveness is a fixed property of the individual, 123 — Memory veraits memories, 124 — Scientific X CONTENTS PAGE system as help to memory, 126 — Technical mem- ories, 127 — Cramming, 129 — Elementary memory unimprovable, 130 — Utility of verbal memorizing, 131 — Measurements of immediate memory, 133 — They throw little light, 134 — Passion is the im- portant factor in human efficiency, 137 — Eye- memory, ear-memory, etc., 137 — The rate of forgetting, Ebbinghaus's results, 139 — Influence of the unreproducible, 142 — To remember, one must think and connect, 143.
XIII. The Acquisition of Ideas 144 Education gives a stock of conceptions, 144 — The order of their acquisition, 146 — Value of verbal material, 149 — Abstractions of different orders: when are they assimilable, 151 — False conceptions of children, 152.
XIV. Apperception 155 Often a mystifying idea, 155 — The process de- fined, 157 — The law of economy, 159 — Old- fogyism, 160 — How many types of apperception? 161 — New heads of classification must continually be invented, 163 — Alteration of the apperceiving mass, 165 — Class names are what we work by, 166 — Few new fundamental conceptions acquired after twenty-five, 167.
XV. The Will 169 The word defined, 169 — All consciousness tends to action, 170 — Ideo-motor action, 171 — Inhibi- tion, 172 — The process of deliberation, 174 — Why so few of our ideas result in acts, 176 — The associationist account of the will, 177 — A balance of impulses and inhibitions, 178 — The CONTENTS XI PAGE CONTENTS XI PAGE over-impulsive and the over-obstructed type, 179 —The perfect type, 180— The balky will, 181— What character building consists in, 184 — Right action depends on right apperception of the case, 185 — Effort of will is effort of attention: the drunkard's dilemma, 187 — Vital importance of voluntary attention, 189 — Its amount may be in- determinate, 191 — Affirmation of free-will, 192 — Two types of inhibition, 193 — Spinoza on inhibi- tion by a higher good, 194 — Conclusion, 195.
TALKS TO STUDENTS.
I.
THE GOSPEL OF RELAXATION 199 II.
ON A CERTAIN BLINDNESS IN HUMAN BEINGS 229 III. WHAT MAKES A LIFE SIGNIFICANT?...265 TALKS TO TEACHERS I.
PSYCHOLOGY AND THE TEACHING ART In the general activity and uprising of ideal in- terests which every one with an eye for fact can discern all about us in American Ufe, there is per- haps no more promising feature than the fermen- tation which for a dozen years or more has been going on among the teachers. In whatever sphere of education their functions may lie, there is to be seen among them a really inspiring amount of searching of the heart about the highest concerns of their profession. The renovation of nations begins always at the top, among the reflective members of the State, and spreads slowly outward and downward. The teachers of this country, one may say, have its future in their hands. The earnestness which they at present show in striving to enlighten and strengthen themselves is an index of the nation's probabihties of advance in all ideal directions. The outward organization of educa- tion which we have in our United States is per- 4 TALKS TO TEACHERS 4 TALKS TO TEACHERS haps, on the whole, the best organization that exists in any country. The State school systems give a diversity and flexibility, an opportunity for experiment and keenness of competition, nowhere else to be found on such an important scale. The independence of so many of the colleges and uni- versities; the give and take of students and in- structors between them all; their emulation, and their happy organic relations to the lower schools; the traditions of instruction in them, evolved from the older American recitation-method (and so avoiding on the one hand the pure lecture-sys- tem prevalent in Germany and Scotland, which considers too Uttle the individual student, and yet not involving the sacrifice of the instructor to the individual student, which the English tutorial sys- tem would seem too often to entail), — all these things (to say nothing of that coeducation of the sexes in whose benefits so many of us heartily believe), all these things, I say, are most happy features of our scholastic life, and from them the most sanguine auguries may be drawn.
Having so favorable an organization, all we need is to impregnate it with geniuses, to get superior men and women working more and more abundantly in it and for it and at it, and in a PSYCHOLOGY AND THE TEACHING ART 0 generation or two America may well lead the education of the world. I must say that I look forward with no little confidence to the day when that shall be an accomplished fact.
No one has profited more by the fermentation of which I speak, in pedagogical circles, than we psychologists. The desire of the schoolteachers for a completer professional training, and their aspiration toward the 'professional' spirit in their work, have led them more and more to turn to us for fight on fundamental principles. And in these few hours which we are to spend together you look to me, I am sure, for information concerning the mind's operations, which may enable you to labor more easily and effectively in the several schoolrooms over which you preside.
Far be it from me to disclaim for psychology all title to such hopes. Psychology ought certainly to give the teacher radical help. And yet I con- fess that, acquainted as I am with the height of some of your expectations, I feel a fittle anxious lest, at the end of these simple talks of mine, not a few of you may experience some disappointment at the net results. In other words, I am not sure that you may not be indulging fancies that are just a shade exaggerated. That would not be 6 TALKS TO TEACHERS altogether astonishing, for we have been having something like a 'boom' in psychology in this country. Laboratories and professorships have been founded, and reviews established. The air has been full of rumors. The editors of educa- tional journals and the arrangers of conventions have had to show themselves enterprising and on a level with the novelties of the day. Some of the professors have not been unwilling to co-operate, and I am not sure even that the publishers have been entirely inert. 'The new psychology' has thus become a term to conjure up portentous ideas withal; and you teachers, docile and receptive and aspiring as many of you are, have been plunged in an atmosphere of vague talk about our science, which to a great extent has been more mystifying than enlightening. Altogether it does seem as if there were a certain fatality of mystifi- cation laid upon the teachers of our day. The mat- ter of their profession, compact enough in itself, has to be frothed up for them in journals and insti- tutes, till its outlines often threaten to be lost in a kind of vast uncertainty. Where the disciples are not independent and critical-minded enough (and I think that, if you teachers in the earlier grades have any defect — the slightest touch of a THE 'new' rSYCHOLOGY defect in the world — it is that you are a mite too docile), we are pretty sure to miss accuracy and balance and measure in those who get a license to lay down the law to them from above.
As regards this subject of psychology, now, I wish at the very threshold to do what I can to dis- pel the mystification. So I say at once that in my humble opinion there is no 'new psychology' worthy of the name. There is nothing but the old psychology which began in Locke's time, plus a little physiology of the brain and senses and theory of evolution, and a few refinements of intro- spective detail, for the most part without adapta- tion to the teacher's use. It is only the funda- mental conceptions of psychology which are of real value to the teacher; and they, apart from the aforesaid theory of evolution, are very far from being new. — I trust that you will see better what I mean by this at the end of all these talks.
I say moreover that you make a great, a very great mistake, if you think that psychology, being the science of the mind's laws, is something from which you can deduce definite programmes and schemes and methods of instruction for immediate schoolroom use. Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate 8 TALKS TO TEACHERS arts directly out of themselves. An intermediary inventive mind must make the application, by using its originality.
The science of logic never made a man reason rightly, and the science of ethics (if there be such a thing) never made a man behave rightly. The most such sciences can do is to help us to catch ourselves up and check ourselves, if we start to reason or to behave wrongly; and to criticise our- selves more articulately after we have made mis- takes. A science only lays down hues within which the rules of the art must fall, laws which the follower of the art must not transgress; but what particular thing he shall positively do within those lines is left exclusively to his own genius. One genius will do his work well and succeed in one way, while another succeeds as well quite dif- ferently; yet neither will transgress the lines.
The art of teaching grew up in the schoolroom, out of inventiveness and sympathetic concrete ob- servation. Even where (as in the case of Herbart) the advancer of the art was also a psychologist, the pedagogics and the psychology ran side by side, and the former was not derived in any sense from the latter. The two were congruent, but neither was subordinate. And so everywhere the SCIENCES AND ARTS 9 teaching must agree with the psychology, but need not necessarily be the only kind of teaching that would so agree; for many diverse methods of teaching may equally well agree with psychologi- cal laws.
To know psychology, therefore, is absolutely no guarantee that we shall be good teachers. To ad- vance to that result, we must have an additional endowment altogether, a happy tact and ingenuity to tell us what definite things to say and do when the pupil is before us. That ingenuity in meeting and pursuing the pupil, that tact for the concrete situation, though they are the alpha and omega of the teacher's art, are things to which psychology cannot help us in the least.
The science of psychology, and whatever science of general pedagogics may be based on it, are in fact much hke the science of war. Nothing is simpler or more definite than the principles of either. In war, all you have to do is to work your enemy into a position from which the natural ob- stacles prevent him from escaping if he tries to; then to fall on him in numbers superior to his own, at a moment when 3'ou have led him to think you far away; and so, with a minimum of expos- ure of your own troops, to hack his force to pieces, 10 TALKS TO TEACHERS and take the remainder prisoners. Just so, in teaching, you must simply work your pupil into such a state of interest in what you are going to teach him that every other object of attention is banished from his mind; then reveal it to him so impressively that he will remember the occasion to his dying day; and finally fill him with devour- ing curiosity to know what the next steps in con- nection with the subject are. The principles being so plain, there would be nothing but victories for the masters of the science, either on the battlefield or in the schoolroom, if they did not both have to make their application to an incalculable quantity in the shape of the mind of their opponent. The mind of your own enemy, the pupil, is working away from you as keenly and eagerly as is the mind of the commander on the other side from the scientific general. Just what the respective ene- mies want and think, and what they know and do not know, are as hard things for the teacher as for the general to find out. Divination and per- ception, not psychological pedagogics or theoretic strategy, are the only helpers here.
But, if the use of psychological principles thus be negative rather than positive, it does not follow that it may not be a great use, all the same. It HOW PSYCHOLOGY SHEDS LIGHT 11 certainly narrows the path for experiments and trials. We know in advance, if we are psycholo- gists, that certain methods will be wrong, so our psychology saves us from mistakes. It makes us, moreover, more clear as to what we are about. We gain confidence in respect to any method which we are using as soon as we believe that it has theory as well as practice at its back. Most of all, it fructifies our independence, and it reanimates our interest, to see our subject at two different angles, — to get a stereoscopic view, so to speak, of the youthful organism who is our enemy, and, while handling him with all our con- crete tact and divination, to be able, at the same time, to represent to ourselves the curious inner elements of his mental machine. Such a complete knowledge as this of the pupil, at once intuitive and analytic, is surely the knowledge at which every teacher ought to aim.
Fortunately for you teachers, the elements of the mental machine can be clearly apprehended, and their workings easily grasped. And, as the most general elements and workings are just those parts of psychology which the teacher finds most directly useful, it follows that the amount of this science which is necessary to all teachers need not 12 TALKS TO TEACHERS be very great. Those who find themselves loving the subject may go as far as they please, and be- come possibly none the worse teachers for the fact, even though in some of them one might appre- hend a little loss of balance from the tendency observable in all of us to overemphasize certain special parts of a subject when we are studying it intensely and abstractly. But for the great majority of you a general view is enough, pro- vided it be a true one; and such a general view, one may say, might almost be written on the palm of one's hand.
Least of all need you, merely as teachers, deem it part of your duty to become contributors to psychological science or to make psychological observations in a methodical or responsible man- ner. I fear that some of the enthusiasts for child- study have thrown a certain burden on you in this way. By all means let child-study go on, — it is refreshing all our sense of the child's life. There are teachers who take a spontaneous delight in filling syllabuses, inscribing observations, compil- ing statistics, and computing the per cent. Child- study will certainly enrich their fives. And, if its results, as treated statistically, would seem on the whole to have but trifling value, yet the anecdotes CHILD-STUDY 13 CHILD-STUDY 13 and observations of which it in part consist do certainly acquaint us more intimately with our pupils. Our eyes and ears grow quickened to discern in the child before us processes similar to those we have read of as noted in the children, — processes of which we might otherwise have re- mained inobservant. But, for Heaven's sake, let the rank and file of teachers be passive readers if they so prefer, and feel free not to contribute to the accumulation. Let not the prosecution of it be preached as an imperative duty or imposed by regulation on those to whom it proves an exter- minating bore, or who in any way whatever miss in themselves the appropriate vocation for it. I cannot too strongly agree with my colleague, Professor Miinsterberg, when he says that the teacher's attitude toward the child, being concrete and ethical, is positively opposed to the psycho- logical observer's, which is abstract and analytic. Although some of us may conjoin the attitudes successfully, in most of us they must conflict.
The worst thing that can happen to a good teacher is to get a bad conscience about her pro- fession because she feels herself hopeless as a psy- chologist. Our teachers are overworked already. Every one who adds a jot or tittle of unnecessary 14 TALKS TO TEACHERS weight to their burden is a foe of education. A bad conscience increases the weight of every other burden; yet I know that child-study, and other pieces of psychology as well, have been productive of bad conscience in many a really innocent ped- agogic breast. I should indeed be glad if this passing word from me might tend to dispel such a bad conscience, if any of you have it; for it is certainly one of those fruits of more or less systematic mystification of which I have already complained. The best teacher may be the poorest contributor of child-study material, and the best contributor may be the poorest teacher. No fact is more palpable than this.
So much for what seems the most reasonable general attitude of the teacher toward the subject which is to occupy our attention.
11.
THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS I SAID a few minutes ago that the most general elements and workings of the mind are all that the teacher absolutely needs to be acquainted with for his purposes.
Now the immediate fact which psychology, the science of mind, has to study is also the most general fact. It is the fact that in each of us, when awake (and often when asleep), soTue kind of consciousness is always going on. There is a stream, a succession of states, or waves, or fields (or of whatever you please to call them), of knowledge, of feeling, of desire, of deliberation, etc., that constantly pass and repass, and that con- stitute our inner life. The existence of this stream is the primal fact, the nature and origin of it form the essential problem, of our science. So far as we class the states or fields of consciousness, write down their several natures, analyze their contents into elements, or trace their habits of succession, 16 TALKS TO TEACHEKS we are on the descriptive or analytic level. So far as we ask where they come from or why they are just what they are, we are on the explanatory level.
In these talks with you, I shall entirely neglect the questions that come up on the explanatory level. It must be frankly confessed that in no fundamental sense do we know where our succes- sive fields of consciousness come from, or why they have the precise inner constitution which they do have. They certainly follow or accom- pany our brain states, and of course their special forms are determined by our past experiences and education. But, if we ask just how the brain con- ditions them, we have not the remotest inkling of an answer to give; and, if we ask just how the education moulds the brain, we can speak but in the most abstract, general, and conjectural terms. On the other hand, if we should say that they are due to a spiritual being called our Soul, which reacts on our brain states by these peculiar forms of spiritual energy, our words would be familiar enough, it is true; but I think you will agree that they would offer little genuine explanatory mean- ing. The truth is that we really do not know the answers to the problems on the explanatory level.