7 Pope’s Iliad, ii. 189, etc. Twining.
8 By incidents of the fable, Aristotle here plainly means all those actions or events which are essential parts of the subject or story, whether previous to the action, and necessary to be known, or included in it, and actually represented in the drama.
9 This seems intended to explain his third precept, of re- semblance in the manners; to reconcile it with his first, and to how what sort of ‘ikeness the nature of tragic —— re- uires, Twining.
the fable,. not the ma- chinery.
8. Com- Qnrah parison 4 Stone With _, daolien painting W Jr 3. Their use, the necessary ones.‘ For in these, errors are fre- quently committed. But concerning these things, enough has been said in the treatises already pube lished.
CHAP. XVI.
ΓΙ Wuat discovery, however, is, has been before stated. But with respect to the species of recognition, the first indeed is the most inartificial, and that which most poets use through being at a loss, and is effected . through signs. But of these, some are natural, such as the “lance with which the earth-born? race are marked,” or the stars [on the bodies of the sons] in the “Thyestes” of Carcinus. Others are adventi- tious, and of these some are in the body, as scars; but others are external, such as necklaces; and such as [the discovery] through a small boat, in the “Tyro%.” These signs also may be used in a better or worse manner. ‘Thus Ulysses,‘ through his scar, is in one way known by his nurse, and in another by the swineherds. For the discoveries which are for the sake of credibility, are more inartificial, and all 10 j, e. to the sight, and the hearing; in other words, to actual representation.
1 The reader, who recollects the conclusion of Sect. 14, where the author took a formal leave of the “fable and its requisites,” and proceeded to the second essential part of tragedy, the manners, will hardly be of Dacier’s opinion, who contends that this section is rightly placed. His reasons are erfectly unsatisfactory. Twining, I have enclosed it in mackets, with Ritter.
2 The descendants of the original Thebans, who, according to the fabulous history, sprung from the earth when Cadmus sowed the dragon’s teeth, etc.—This noble race are said to have be distinguished by the natural mark of a lance upon their odies, 3 Sophocles wrote two tragedies of this name, neither of them preserved.—The story of Tyro leads us to suppose, that Aristotle means the little boat, trough, or, as some render it, eradle,in which Tyro had exposed her children, on,’or near, the river: the particular manner of the discovery it would be in vain to guess.
4 See Pope’s Ohya. xix. νυν. 451, etc., and the note there, on v. 461, and xxi. 2 CHAP. XvI.}. POETIC. 439 of them are of this kind; but those which a:e from revolution, as in the “ Washing of Ulysses®,” are better. And those recognitions rank in the second place, which are invented by the poet, on which ac- count they are inartificial. Thus Orestes in the “ Tphigenia” discovers that he is Orestes®. For she indeed recognises her brother through a letter, but Orestes himself speaks what the poet designs, but not what the fable requires; on which account it is near to the above-mentioned error; since he might have introduced some [of the real things as signs]. ‘Thus, too, in the “ Tereus” of Sophocles, the “ voice of the shuttle” [produced a recognition’]. But the third mode of discovery is through memory, from the sensible perception of something by sight, as in the “ Cyprii” of Diczogenes; for on seeing the picture a certain person weeps. And in the “Tale of Alcinous;” for Ulysses, on hearing the lyrist, and recollecting the story, weeps; whence also [all these] were recog- nised. The fourth mode of discovery is derived from syllogism’, as in the “ Choephore”—a person like 5 The ancients distinguished the different parts of Homer’s poems by different titles accommodated to the different subjects, or episodes; and, in referring to him, they made use of these, not of the division into books. Thus, the part of the xixth book of the Odyssey above referred to, was called The Wash- ing. The Tale of Alcinous was another title, which will presently be mentioned. Twining.
6 I follow Ritter, who supplies “ἰο Iphigenia.”” The older editors interpolated the passage. See Ritter’s note on the fol- lowing passage. The whole disputation is ‘‘ arguta et obscura,” as the learned critic observes.
7 Taylor’s note is pre-eminently absurd. Tyrwhitt elegantly explains the passage thus: κερκίδος φωνὴ is a quotation from the play, and denotes the web itself, by means of which Philo- mela explained to her sister Procne the injuries she had suffered from Tereus, since, her tongue being cut out, she could not speak. Cf. Ovid, Met. VI. 424; Hygin. Fab. 45, quoted by Ritter, whose note deserves the student’s attention. As the web is said to speak, which describes, so the shield of Capaneus χρυσοῖς φωνεῖ γράμμασιν, Aisch. Sept. C. Th. 434.
8 Occasioned by reasoning;—i. e. by reasoning, (ΟΣ rather, inference, or conclusion,) in the person discovered. See the note.—It should be remembered, that Aristotle is not, in this chapter, inventing τ rans ty enumerating all the kinds .G 5. By me mory.
6. By reason- ing.
7. By the miscon- eeption of the audi- ence.
8. The best is from the circum- stances them- selves.
440 ARISTOTLE’S fcHaP xyt.
me is arrived—there is no person like me but Orestes,—Orestes, therefore, is arrived. Thus too in the “Iphigenia®” of Polyides the sophist. For it was probable that Orestes would syllogistically con- clude, that because his sister had been immolated, it would likewise happen to him to be sacrificed. Thus also in the “ Tydeus”” of Theodectes, a cer- tain person comes to discover his son, and himself perishes". Another example also is in the “ Phinide.” For the women, on seeing the place, inferred what their fate would be, viz. that they must needs perish in this place; for they were exposed in it from their infancy. There is also a certain compound [{dis- covery }, which is produced from the false inference of the spectator, as in the “ Ulysses the False Messen- ger.” For he says, he should know the bow, which he had not seen; but the [audience], as if he must be known through this, on this account infer falsely. The best recognition, however, of all, is that which arises from the things themselves, astonishment being excited through probable circumstances; as in the “‘(Edipus” of Sophocles and the “Iphigenia;” (for it is probable that she would be willing to send letters;) since such things alone are without fictitious signs and necklaces”. But the recognitions which rank in the second place, are those which are derived from syl- logism. }: possible or practicable; but only classing and examining such as he found in use, or could recollect, in the tragedies and epic poems of his time. ‘Twining. i ® The subject appears to have been the same as that of th Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides. We are to suppose, that Orestes was discovered to his sister by this natural exclama- tion, at the moment when he was led to the altar of Diana to be sacrificed. Twining.
10 Of this and the preceding tragedy, we know nothing but what we learn here: i. 6. that in the one, a father, and in the other, the daughters of Phineus, were discovered, and, proba- bly, saved, by those exclamations. Twining. 4 11 See Ritter. Nothing of this play is known.
12 ΑἹ] this passage is hopelessly corrupt.
CRAP XVII. ] POETIC. ati CHAP. XVII.
Ir is necessary, however, that the poet should form the plots, and elaborate his diction, in such a manner that he may as much as possible place the thing before his own eyes', For thus the poet perceiving most acutely, as if present with the transactions themselves, will discover what is becoming, and whatever is re- pugnant will be least concealed from his views An evidence of this is the fault with which Carcinus is reproached. For Amphiaraus had left the temple, which was concealed from the spectator, who did not perceive it, and the piece was driven’ from the stage in consequence of the indignation of the spectators. For the poet as much as possible should co-operate with the gestures [of the actor]; since those are naturally most adapted to persuade who are them- selves under the influence of passion. Hence, also, he agitates others who is himself agitated®, and he excites others to anger who is himself most truly enraged. Hence, poetry is the province either of one who is naturally clever, or of one who is insane‘.
1 i. e. place himself in the position of a spectator. Ritter observes that σόν συνίσταντα must be supplied.
2 ἐκπίπτειν is properly used of the condemnation of a piece. See Hemst. on Lucian, Nigrin. § 8. In Demosth. de Coron. p- 315, ed. Reisk. it is applied to the actor. Cf. Bud. Com. L. Gr. p. 536. There isa pun upon the double meaning of the verb. Amphiaraus went (ἐξέπεσε) away, and the piece was condemned (ἐξέπεσε) in consequence.
8 But Twining, in a long and learned note, expresses his opinion that χειμαένει may be used in its proper neuter sense, and that the meaning may be as follows: ‘‘ The poet should work himself, as far as may be, into the passion he is to repre- sent, by even assuming the countenance and the gestures which are its natural expressions. For they, of course, have most probability and truth in their imitation, who actually feel, in some degree, the passion: and no one expresses agitation of mind (xetuaiver) so naturally, (ἀληθινώτατα,) as he who is really agitated, (χειμαζόμενος,) or expresses anger (χαλεπαίνει) so naturally, as he who is really angry (ὀργιζόμενος).᾽ 4 “In an enthusiasm allied to madness,” is Twining’s translation, which is all — oe means to say, underες 1. Rules for re- alizing ideas.
2. The poet should feel what he writes, 8. and should form a general sketch of his plot.
4, The episodes must be suitable 5. and short.
442 ARISTOTLE’S lcwar. xvit.
For of these characters, the one is easily fashioned, but the other is prone to ecstasy. It is likewise necessary that the poet should in a general way lay down the fables composed by others, and those which he composes himself, and afterwards introduce epi- sodes and lengthen out Ne play]. But I say that he should give a general sketch after this manner. Thus, for instance, in the “Iphigenia®,” a certain virgin on the point of being sacrificed, and vanishing from the view of those who were to sacrifice her, and being brought to another country in which it was a law to sacrifice strangers to a certain goddess, she is appointed the priestess of these rites. Some time after, it happened that the brother of the priestess came to this place; [but on what account? Because some god had ordered him, for a certain reason which does not pertain to the general view of the tragedy, } to come thither, [but why he did so is foreign to the fable®]. The brother, therefore, coming, and being made captive, discovered [his sister], when he is going to be sacrificed; whether, as Euripides says, [ by an epistle, | or, as Polyides feigns, speaking according to probability, because he said, it was not only requi- site that the sister, but that he also should be sacri- ficed:—and hence safety arises. After these things, the poet having given names to the persons, should insert the episodes; and he must be careful that the episodes be appropriate; as that of the insanity through which Orestes was taken captive, and his being saved through expiation. In dramas, therefore, the episodes are short, but by these the epopee is lengthened. For the fable of the Odyssey is short, viz. a certain man wandering for many years, and perse- cuted by Neptune, and left alone. And besides this, his domestic affairs being so circumstanced, that his standing ‘‘ eos, qui animo commotiores sunt,” as Ritter ren- ders it. On the connexion between poetic enthusiasm and madness, cf. Plato, Ion. p. 145. C. etc. Pheedr. p. 344. B. Lam. with Clemens Alex. Strom. vi. p. 827. Theodoret. Sepam. IL. Ὁ, 20. Cicer. de Div. I. 37.
5 Eur. Iph. Taur. * The passage is interpolated. See Ritter.
CHAP. XVII] POETIC. 443 wealth is consumed Dy suitors, and stratagems are plotted against his son. But driven by a tempest, he returns, and making himself known to certain per- sons, he attacks the suitors, and is himself saved, but destroys his enemies, This, therefore, is the peculi- arity of the fable, but the rest is episode.
CHAP. XVIII.
[In every tragedy, however, there is a complication and development’. And external circumstances in- deed, and some of those that are internal, frequently form the complication; but the rest the development. I call, however, the complication, the whole of that which extends from the beginning to the last part, from which there is a transition to good fortune; but I call the development that part which extends from the beginning of the transition to the end. Thus in the Lynceus of Theodectes, the past trans- actions, and the capture of the son, are the compli- cation; but the part which extends from the charge of murder to the end, is the development. But of tragedy there are four species; for so many parts of it have also been enumerated. And one species is the complicated, of which the whole is revolution and discovery; another, the pathetic, such as the tragedies of Ajax and Ixion; another, the moral’, such as the Phthiotides and the Peleus; but the Literally, the tyiwg and untying. With the French, Neud and Denouwement are convenient and established terms. I hope I shall be pardoned for avoiding our awkward expres- sions of the ixtrigue and unravelling of a plot, etc. I could find no terms less exceptionable than those I have used. Twining.
2 j. e. in which the delineation of manmers or character is predominant. Our language, I think, wants a word to express thie sense of the Greek ἠθικὸν, and the Latin, moratum. Man- nered has, I believe, sometimes been used in this sense; but so seldom, as to sound awkwardly. We know nothing of the sub- jects here given as examples. Twining. — at.
2. Four species of tragedy; 3. all which the poet should under- atand.
4 On epic tragedy.
δ. Illus- trations.
fourth is another such as the “ Phorcidcs®” and the “Prometheus,” and the tragedies which represent what passes in Hades. It is especially necessary, therefore, that the poet should endeavour to have all these species; or at least that he should have the greatest and most of them, especially since men of the present age calumniate the poets. For as there have been good poets in each part of tragedy, they now expect one poet to excel in all the parts. But it is right to call tragedy different and the same, though not perhaps with any reference to the fable; but this [may be the case with those] of which there is the same plot and solution. But many poets com- plicate well, and develope badly‘. But both these should always be applauded®. But it is necessary to recollect, as has been often observed, that we must not make tragedy an epic system. Now, I call that tragedy an epic system, which consists of many fables; as if some one should compose a tragedy from the whole fable of the Iliad. For in the Iliad, on account of its length, the parts receive an appro- priate magnitude. But in dramas, the effect pro- duced would be very contrary to expectation. The truth of this is indicated by such as have repre- sented [in one tragedy] the whole destruction of Troy, and not some part of it, as the “Niobe” or “Medea” of Euripides, and who have not acted like Kschylus; for these have either been condemned, 3 Eschylus wrote a tragedy so named. It is difficult te imagine what he could make of these three curious personages, who were born old women, lived under ground, and had but one eye among them, which they used by turns; carrying it, I suppose, in a case, like a pair of spectacles. Such is the tale! Twining.
4 No fault so common: see note 59. It was with the Greek tragedians, probably, as with Shakspeare.—‘‘ In many of his plays the latter part is evidently neglected. When he found himself near the end of his work, and in view of his reward, he shortened the labour, to snatch the profit. He therefore re- mits his efforts where he should most vigorously exert them, and his catastrophe is improbably produced, or imperfectly represented.”? Johnson’s Pref. to Shakspeare. Twining.
5 This passage is contradictory and unintelligible. Ses Bitter, who condemns the whole as spurious.
CHAP. XVIII. | POETIC. 443 or contend without success; since Agatho also failed in this alone. But in revolutions, and in simple ac- tions, those poets admirably effect their aim. For this is tragical, and has a moral tendency. This, however, takes place when a wise but a depraved man, such as Sisyphus, is deceived; and a brave but unjust man is vanquished. But this is probable, as Agatho says. For it is probable that many things may take place contrary to probability. It is neces- sary likewise to conceive the chorus to be one of the players® and a part of the whole, and that it co-oper- ates with the players, not as in Euripides’, but as in Sophocles. But with other tragedians, the choral songs do not more belong te that fable, than to any other tragedy; on which account the chorus sing detached pieces, inserted at pleasure’, of which Aga- tho was the inventor. What difference, however, - Actoris partes chorus, officitumque virile Defendat: neu quid medios intercinat actus, Quod non proposito conducat et hereat apte.
7? This expression does not, I think, necessarily imply any stronger censure of Euripides, than that the choral odes of his tragedies were, in general, more loosely connected with the subject, than those of Sophocles; which, on examination, would, I believe, be found true. For that this is the fault here meant, not the improper ‘‘ choice of the persons who compose the chorus,” as the ingenious translator of Euripides under- stands, is, I think, plain from what immediately follows; the connexion being this:—‘‘ Sophocles is, in this respect, most perfect; Euripides Jess so; as to the others, their choral songs are total’y foreign to the subject of their tragedies.” See Pot- ter’s Euripides—Postscript to the Trojan Dames. Warton’s Essay on the Genius, etc., of Pope, vol. i. p. 71.
8. It is curious to trace the gradual extinction of the chorus. At first, it was all; then, relieved by the intermixture of dia- logue, but still principal; then, subordinate to the dialogue; then, digressive, and ¢li connected with the piece; then, borrow- ed from other pieces at pleasure—and so on, to the fiddles and the act-tunes, at which Dacier is so angry. (See his note, p. 335.) The performers in the orchestra of a modern theatre are little, I believe, aware, that they occupy the place, and may consider themselves as the lineal descendants, of the ancient chorus. Orchestra (6pxno7Tpa) was the name of that part cf the ancient theatre which was appropriated to the chorus. ([Jul. Pollux, IV. p. 423.]
7. The business of the chorus 1, Diction and senti- ment.
4. How far the poet should be does it make, to sing inserted pieces, or to adapt the diction of one drama to another, or the whole episode?
CHAP. XIX.
Or the other parts of tragedy enough has now been said. But it remains that we should speak concern- ing the diction and the sentiments. The particulars, therefore, respecting the sentiments, are unfolded in the treatise on Rhetoric, to which it more properly belongs. But those things pertain to the sentiments, which it is requisite to procure by a reasoning pro- cess. And the parts of these are, to demonstrate, to refute, and to excite the passions; such as pity, or fear, or anger, and such like; and besides these, to . amplify and extenuate. It is evident, however, that in things, also, it is requisite to derive what is useful from the same forms, when it is necessary to procure objects of pity, or things that are dreadful, or great, or probable. Except that there is this difference, that things in tragedy ought to be rendered apparent without teaching, but in an oration they are to be shown by the speaker, and in consequence of the speech. For what employment would there be for the orator, if the things should appear [ of themselves | pleasing, and not through the speech? But of things pertaining to diction, there is one species of theory respecting the forms of speech’, which it is the pro- 1 What are we to understand by these σχήματα λέξεως P— The learned reader will immediately see, that, as Victorius has observed, they are not to be confounded with those σχήματα λέξεως, of which we hear so much from Cicero, Quintilian, Dion. Hal. etc.,—those “‘ figure verborum,”’ which are opposed to the σχήματα διανοίας, the “ figure mentis, sententiarum,” etc. Indeed, no such division of σχήματα is, I believe, to be found in Aristotle. It seems to have been the invention of the later rhetoricians; and how little they were agreed, as to the ~ number and the species of these σχήματα, the propriety of the division itself, and even the precise sense of the word σχῆμα, may be seen in Quintilian ix. 1 —The σχήματα λέξεως of Aris- CHAP. xx.] POETIC. 447 vince of the actor to know, and of him who is a master artist in this profession. Thus, for instance, [it is requisite he should know, ] what a mandate is, what a prayer, narration, threats, interrogation and an- swer are, and whatever else there may be of this kind. For from the knowledge or ignorance of these, the poetic art incurs no blame of any moment. For who would think that Homer errs in what he is reproved for by Protagoras? viz. that while he fancies he prays, he commands, when he says, “ The wrath, O goddess, sing.” For, says he, to order a thing to be done, or not to be done, is a mandate. Hence, this must be omitted as a theorem pertaining to another art, and not to poetry.
CHAP. XxX. * The parts of Diction.
(‘Ce all diction, however, the following are the parts; viz. the letter, the syllable, the conjunction, the noun, the verb, the article, the case, and the sentence. The totle in this place, are plainly such as would have been de- nominated by later writers, σχήματα d.avoias—figures of the thought or sense. Indeed we find them actually enumerated among the figures of that class. See Dionys. Halicarn. de Struct. etc. Sect. 8.—So Quintilian; “ Figuras quoque mentis, gue σχήματα διανοίας dicuntur, res eadem recipit omnes, in quas nonnulli diviserunt species dictorum, (i. 6. of jokes, bone mots). Nam et interrogamus, et dubitamus, et affirmamus, et minamur, et optamus.”’
I see, therefore, not the least reason why the expression σχῆμα λέξεως should not be rendered here exactly as in the other passages above referred to, “‘ figura orationis ’’—form, or configuration, of speech. For λέξις; it tiust be observed, is here used, not in the particular sense of diction, or style and man- ner of expression, (as it is used Rhet. iii. 8,) but in the general sense of λόγος, speech, as we find it used in the begin- ning of the next chapter.
1 This chapter is an evident interpolation, and the student will gain but little benefit from its perusal, as the matter of it is incorrect and ill arranged, See Ritter.
acquainte ed with the differ- ent appli- cations of diction.
5.
1. The parts of diction.
2. Letters.
3.. Their divisions, 4. and dif- ferences.
5. Sylla- les.
448 ARISTOTLE’S [cuar. xx, letter, therefore, indeed, is an indivisible sound?; yet not every such sound, but that from which an intelli- gible sound is adapted to be produced. For there are indivisible vocal sounds of brutes, no one of which I call a,letter®} But the parts of this indivisible sound are,;;vowel,;semivowel, and mute. And a vowel, indeed; is that which has an audible sound, without percussion’; such asaando. But a semi- vowel is that which has an audible sound, with per- cussion; as 8 and r. And a mute is that which, even with the concurrence of the tongue, has of itself, indeed, no sound, but becomes audible in conjunction with things which have a certain sound; as g and d. But these differ bY the configurations of the mouth, in the parts [of the mouth®] by density and tenuity of aspiration, by length and shortness; and further still, they differ by acuteness and gravity, and by the medium between both these; the theory respecting each of which pertains to the metrical art. But a syllable is a sound without signification, composed from a mute, and an element which has sound [i. e. from a vowel, or semivowel]. Forgr without @ is a syllable®, and also with a, as gra.
2 “Vocal sound,” is Taylor’s translation of φωνή.
3 « Element of diction.” Taylor 4 As Hermann has ventured to call προσβολὴ allisus, I trust I shall be excused for adopting Twining’s quaint, but clear translation. He observes: “ Literally, percussion, i. e. of the tongue against the palate, or teeth, the lips against the teeth, or against each other, and all the other modes of conso- nant articulation. See Hermes, iii. 2. p. 322, where they are caiiod ‘ contacts.? Dacier makes sad confusion here, both in his version and his notes, by confounding the names of the consonants, when vowels are prefixed, or put after them, to make them separately pronouncible, (Te, eF, eL, etc.,) with their powers in composition—as elements of words. Thus, it is strictly true, that S and R have a sound, without the assist- ance of a vowel, merely by their mode of articulation. But D, or G, have no sound at all by themselves. The semivowels arel,m,n,r,s. (Dion. Halicarn. De Struct. Orat. sect. 14.)”
δ. i. e. the different organs of speech, from which letters are denominated nasal, dental, labial, etc. Taylor.
6 Gr is an instance of a syllable composed of a mute and ἃ semivowel; and g ra of a syllable composed of a mute, 8 vowel, and a semivowel. Taylor. © But see Ritter CHAP. XX. ] POETIC. 419 The study, however, of the differences of these, pertains also to the metrical art. But ἃ conjunction is 6. Con- a sound void of signification, which neither impedes J¥"°4- nor produces one significant sound adapted to be composed from many sounds, and which may be _placed cither at the beginning or the end of the period, unless something requires that it should be placed by itself at the beginning; such as μὲν, ἤτοι, δή. Or it is a sound without signification, composed from more sounds than one, but naturally adapted to produce one significant sound. An article is a sound 7. Article | without signification, which shows the beginning, or ὃς...end, or distinction of a word’; as ro φημί, and τὸ περί, and others of the like kind. Or it is a sound without signification, which neither impedes nor produces one significant sound naturally adapted to be _composed from many sounds, both in the extremes and in the middle. But a noun is a composite sound, 8. Noun. significant without time, of which no part is of itself significant. For in double nouns, we do not use the parts as of themselves significant. Thus, in the word Theodorus, [though Theos signifies God and doron a gift, | yet doron signifies nothing. A verb is a com- 9. Verb. posite sound, significant with time, of which no part is of itself significant, in the same manner also as in nouns. For man or white does not signify time; but he walks, or he did walk, signify, the former indeed ν the present, and the latter the past time. But case 1(. Case pertains to noun or verb. And one case, indeed, fin nouns | signifies that something is said of this thing, or is attributed ¢o* this thing, and the like; 7 This description is most obscure; but the sense seems to be, that an article is a sound which of itself does not, signify any thing definite, but merely serves to indicate a significant sound, before or after which it is placed, or which it distin- guishes from other words. Taylor. Ritter denies that there is any sense at all, an opinion in which the reader will pro- bably acquiesce.
8 These only, in modern grammar, are called cases: in Aris- sotle, number, whether in noun or verb, and the tenses, and modes, (or moods,) of verbs, are comprehended under that term; because cases (3wrwoers—cases) are endings, termina- tions, inflections, etc., and, in the learned languages, ail the 12. Its unity.
12. Its unity.
150 ARISTOTLE’S [cuar. xxi.
but another is that which pertains to one thing or many things; as men, or man. And another case pertains to acting*®, such as what relates to interro- gation or demand. For did he walk? Or walkisa case of ‘a verb according to these species. And a sentence is a composite significant sound, of which certain parts of themselves signify something; for not every sentence is composed from nouns and verbs, (since the definition of man” is a sentence without a verb,) but there may be a sentence without verbs. A sentence, however, will always have some part significant; as in the sentence Cleon walks, the word Cleon is significant. But a sentence is one in a twofold respect; for it is either that which signi- fies one thing, or that which becomes one from many by conjunction". Thus the Iliad, indeed, is one by conjunction; but the definition of. man is one, be- cause it signifies one thing. | CHAP. XXI.
ἊΣ On Nouns and Metaphors, 1. The species of ‘nouns.
ὙΥΊΤΗ respect to the species of a noun, one is simple; and I call the simple noun that which is not comabove-mentioned differences of meaning are expressed by dif- ferent terminations. ‘The French use chute, the literal trans- lation of casus, in the sense of termination—* La chute d’une periode,” etc. And fall is used, in our poetical language, for a close, or cadence, in music.
That strain again—it had a dying FALL. Merch. of Venice.
And so Milton in Comus, v. 25]. Twining.
9 These modes are the same which he calls figures of speech, Sect. 23. Twining.
10 The definition alluded to appears to be this, literally ren- dered: ‘A terrestrial animal with two feet”? (ζῷον πεζὸν, δίπουν). Twining.
11 Compare wept ‘Epunv. cap. v. p. 38.—Analyt. Post. lib. ii. cap. 10. p. 469, E.—Metaphys. vil. 4. p. 910, D. (where uses τῷ συνέχει, as equivalent to συνδέσμῳ,) and viii.
CHAP. XXiI.' POETIC. 45!
posed from significan 5: but another is twofold. And this either consists of that which is sig- © nificant, and that which is without signification, or of both parts significant. A noun also may be triple and quadruple, as is the case with many of the nouns of the Megaliote'; such as Hermocazcoxanthus?. But every noun is either proper or foreign®, or me- taphorical, [or ornamental‘,] or invented, or ex- tended, or contracted, or altered. But I call thata proper name, which is used by every one; and that a foreign® name which is used by other nations. Hence it is evident that the same noun may be both foreign and proper, though not to the same people. For the word Xiyvvorv® is proper to the Cyprians, 931, C. Twining. Ritter remarks, that the compiler of this chapter did not understand the passages he copied.
ΕἼ have read, in some ludicrous book, of a country that was “lost by the ignorance of geographers.’’ This seems to have been the case of these Megaliote, if such a people ever ex- isted. They are no where recorded.—Dacier reads, μεγαρι- ζόντων----“ ceux qui disent de grandes choses:’’ and cites Hesy- chius—Meyapifovres—peyaha λέγοντες. But this is too distant from the present reading, Μεγαλιωτῶν. Winstanley’s conjec- ture—peyarsiwv, ws, is somewhat nearer, and, in other re- spects, preferable: but it is, I think, a strong presumption against its truth, that Aristotle constantly uses οἷον, when he gives an instance; never, as far as I recollect, ws.
I have sometimes thought it not very improbable, that the passage might originally have stood thus: τῶν péyadA Διω- ΚΟΝτων: i. 6. of those who affect, aim at, are fond of, grandeur and pomp of expression; who love hard words, as we say. Nothing more comncon than this sense of d:wxew. Twining.
. Donaldson, Theatre of the Greeks, p. 27, pt. 2, adopts Tyr- whitt’s conjecture, μεγαλείων ὡς, as being confirmed by Xenoph. Mem. II. 1, § 34, and renders it, “‘ the bombastic expressions.’ Ritter prefers πολλαπλομεγάλωπος, as an ex- ample of this kind of word, but Donaldson seems right.
2 This is a noun composed from the names of the three rivers Hermus, Caicus, and Xanthus.
3 Cf. Rhet. iii. 1 and 2.
¢ Ritter condemns the addition of κόσμος, as it has no de- finition. > 5 Ritter remarks that γλώτται are both provincialisms and ebsotete words.
2. Their divisions 3. Pro- per and foreign.
4. Neta- phor.
but foreign to us. ‘But a metaphor’ is the transposition of a noun from its _proper signification, either from the génus to the species, or from the species te emplified.
the genus; or from species to species, οἵ according to the analagous. I call, however, a transposition from genus to species, such as, ov Secure in yonder port my vessel ‘stands’. f For to be moored is a species of standing. But a transposition from species to genus is such as, Ten thousand valiant deeds Ulysses has achieved®. For ten thousand is a great number, and is now used instead of many.) And a transposition from species to species is such as, aa The brazen falchion/drew away)his life. And, ΤΡ Cut by the ruthless sword 9, For here to draw away, is used instead of to cut; and ¢o cut is used instead of to draw away; sitice both imply the taking something away. But I call it analogous, when the relation of the second term to the first is similar to that of the fourth to the third; \ for then the fourth is used instead of the second, or the “second instead of the fourth. [And sometimes the