proper term is added to the relative terms'!.] I say, for instance, a cup has a similar relation to Bacchus that a shield has to Mars. Hence, a shield may be called the cup of Mars, and a cup the shield of Bacchus. Again, evening has the same relation to day that old age has to life. One may therefore say that 7 Aristotle understands metaphor in a more extended sense than we do, for we only consider the third and fourth of the kinds enumerated by him, as metaphors. Our usurpation of the word was in vogue in Cicero’s time. See de Orat. III. 38, sqq- Ritter.
10 This, and the next species only, answer to what we call metaphor—the metaphor founded on resemblance. The two first species belong to the trope denominated, since Aristotle’s time, Synecdoche. Twining.
11 This is perfectly out of place and useless. See Ritter.
(iy ins ν CHAP. χχι. POETIC.. 453 evening is the old age of day, and that old age is the evening of life; or as Empedocles calls it, ‘‘ The setting of life’.” In some instances, also, wheré tlere 7. Means is no analogous name, this method may be no less Στὰ similarly employed. Thus, to scatter grain is to sow; them. but there is no name for the scattering of light from the sun, and yet this has a similar relation to the sun that sowing has to grain. Hence, it is said, Sowing his god-created flame.
This mode of metaphor may likewise be used differ-. 8, ently, when, calling a thing by a foreign name, something belonging to it is denied of it; as if one should “call a shield not the cup of Mars, but the wineless cup. But an invented noun is that, in short, which, 9. Inven- not being adopted by others, is introduced by the poet tedwords. himself. Forit appears that there are certain nouns of this kind; as substituting ἔρνυγες instead of κέρατα for horns’, and calling a priest dpnrho™, instead of ἱερεύς. And a word is extended or contracted, partly 10. Ex- by using a vowel longer than the proper one, or by ag inserting a syliable; and partly by taking something tracted. away from it. An extended noun, indeed, is such as πόληος for πόλεως, and πηληϊάδεω for πηλείδου; but the contracted, such as κρῖ, and δῶ ὃ; and, μία γίνεται ἀμφοτέρων of", ———The sight of both is one.
And a word is changed when the poet leaves part of 11. it, and invents part; as, Changed, 12 “Thy sun is set, thy spring is gone.” Gray, Ode on Spring. “Yet hath my night of life some memory.” Shakspeare, Com. of Errors—last scene. Twinmg 13 i. e. branches; which we also use for the horns of a stag. But Aristotle means a new word, not a new application merely of a word already in use. Twining.
14 A supplicator; literally, a prayer, taken in the sense of one who prays; as seer is used for prophet. Twining.
15 Koi is used Il. E. 196. Aw, 1]. A. 425. Twining.
16 Part of a verse of Empedocles, quoted by Strabo, p. 364, ed, Cantab, genders.
1. Two requisites of diction, clearness, and free- dom from meanness, How pro- duced.
sults and effects of the differ- ent kinds of words.
454 ARISTOTLE’S [CHAP XXIk Δεξιτερὸν κατὰ μαζόν.
In the right breast "7, Instead of δεξιόν. ["*Further still, of nouns some are masculine, others feminine, and others between, [or neuter]. And the masculine, indeed, are such as end in ν, and p, and o, and such as are composed from o; but these are two, Ψ and é. The feminine nouns are such as are composed from vowels, and always end in long vowels; as, for instance, in ἡ and ὠ, or in a of the doubtful. Hence it happens that the number of terminations for masculine and feminine are equal; for the terminations of ~ and é are the same. No noun, however, ends in a mute, or in a short vowel; and only three nouns end in 4, viz. μέλι, κόμμι, and πέπερι. But five end in v; viz. πῶῦ, νᾶπυ, γόνυ, δόρυ, and ἄστυ. And the neuter nouns end in these, and in ν and ec. | A CHAP. XXII. The subject of Diction continued, THE virtue of diction, however, consists in being per- spicuous, and not mean’. ‘The diction, therefore, is most perspicuous, which is composed from proper nouns, but then it will be mean. But an example of this is the poetry of Cleophon and Sthenelus. It will, however, be elevated, and remote from the vular idiom, by employing unusual words. But I call unusual words, such words as are foreign, the meta- phorical, the extended, and every word except the proper [name of a thing]. If, however, [a poet] wholly employ such words as these, it will be either an enigma, or a barbarism> If, therefore, it were 18 This following passage is false in its statements, and totallw foreign to Aristotle’s design. Ritter, therefore, has rightly condemned it.
1 Of. Rhet, iiie 1, extr. and 2. init. | Ch. >. XXII.} POETIC. 435 composed from metaphors, it would be an enigma; but if from foreign words, a barbarism. For the essence of an enigma is this, to unite things impos- sible, yet really true*. Now, from the arrangement of the words, itis not possible to effect this, but it may be effected by a metaphor; as “ I sawa man who had glued brass to a man with fire*;” and others of the like kind. [But from the composition of foreign words a barbarism is produced‘.] Hence language should be moderately varied with these. _ Foreign, 3. therefore, metaphorical, ἔτος ornamental | words, and~ “the other species that have been mentioned, will “eause the diction to be neither vulgar nor mean; but “proper words produce perspicuity. But the extend- 4. ing, contracting, and changing of names, contribute in no small degree to the perspicuity of the diction, without vulgarity. For the use of words in a way different from their proper and usual signification, causes the diction to be not vulgar; but the adoption of words in their accustomed meaning, renders it perspicuous. Hence those do not blame rightly, who 5. Objee- find fault with this mode of speech, and like the an- pen Po cient Euclid ridicule the poet, [objecting] that verse might easily be composed, if one permit the quantity of syllables to be lengthened at pleasure, making lam- bics even in common discourse; as ἤτοι Χάριν εἶδον ΜΜαραθῶννάδε βαδίζοντα. And,: Οὐκ ἄν γ᾽ ἐράμενος τὸν ἐκείνου ἐλλέβορουϑ.
2 τὸ λόγοντα ὑπάρχοντα ἀδύνατα συνάψαι, “ to put together things apparently inconsistent and impossible, and at the same time saying nothing but what is true.’”? Twining.
3 Rhet. iii, 2. κόλλησιν εἶπε τὴν τῆς σικύας προσβολήν. The operation of cupping is meant. Compare Celsus ii. 11, and Almeloy. on Ceelius Aurel. Chronic, ii. 1. § 394. Rhod, on Scribon. Larg. Compos. xlvi. The fire alludes to the burnt tow (dinamentum) used to exhaust the air in the cup- ping glass.
4 Apparently a gloss. See Ritter.
δ It is of little use to attempt to settle the reading of these “nonsense verses.” Ritter observes that the fault probably lay in pronouncing ita ἐρράμενος. See his notes.
H 3.
oS 456 ARISTOTLE’S fcuar. xxn It is evident, therefore, that to be detected using this mode of diction 16 ridiculous) [But measure is com- mon to all the par iction ®,| For it would pro- duce the same effect, to make an improper and ridiculous use of metaphors, foreign words, and other forms of diction. But how great a difference is made by the appropriate use of them, may be seen in epic poetry, by putting the words in metre. And he who transfers proper names into foreign words, into metaphors, and the other forms, will see that what we have said is true. Thus, for instance, Atschylus and Euripides made the same Iambic verse; but by only changing one word from its proper and usual to a foreign signification, the one verse appears beautiful, and the other mean. For /Xschylus in- deed, in his Philoctetes, writes, A cancerous ulcer feeds upon my foot.
But Euripides, instead of ἐσθέει, feeds, uses the word θοινᾶται, banquets on. And, Nov δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν ὀλίγος Te Kal οὐτιδανὸς Kal ἄκικυς, by inserting proper [and common ] words, it will be, Νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν μικρός Te kai ἀσθενικὸς Kai derdys’. And, Aidpov ἀεικέλιον καταθεὶς, ὀλίγην Te τράπεζαν. Aippov μοχθηρὸν καταθεὶς, μικράν Te τράπεζαν 5.
δ Twining renders, ‘in the employment of all the species of unusual words, moderation is necessary.’ But this meaning can scarcely be elicited from the words. See Ritter, who con- demns the passage as an interpolation.
7 In this verse Polyphemus complains that he was deprived of sight by Ulysses, a Kittle, weak, vile man. But Homer, in- stead of using the word μικρὸς, little, uses ὀλίγος, which signi- fies few. Instead of ἀσθενικὸς, puny, he uses οὐτιδανὸς, which signifies a man of no account; and ἄκικυς, powerless, instead of ἀειδὴς, obscure. Taylor. Cf. Od. ix. 515.
8 In this verse, which is from the 21st book of the Odyssey, Homer, for the purpose of signifying an ignoble seat, calls it by a foreign word, ἀεικέλιον, and ne’, by the usual word, μοχθηρόν; and he calls the table, not μικρὰν, small, Lut ὀλίγην, few. Taylor. Cf. Od. xxi. 259.
CHaP. XXII." POETIC. 457 Or change, ἠϊόνες βοόωσιν (the shores rebellow®) to niovec κράζουσιν (the shores cry out). [9 Again, 8. Fur- Ariphrades used to ridicule the tragic poets for em- a ob- ploying modes of diction, which no one would use in πον ἢ common conyersation; such as δωμάτων ἄπο, and not ἀπὸ δωμάτων, i. 6. home from, and not from home; σέθεν [for σοῦ]; ἐγὼ dé νιν", and ᾿Αχιλλέως πέρι, and not περὶ ᾿Αχιλλέως, i. 6. Achilles about, and not about Achilles; and other expressions of the like kind.
For all such forms of language, because they are not in common use, remove vulgarity from the diction.
But this he did not know.] It is, however, a great 9. Proper _thing to use each of the above-mentioned modes in a scab: becoming manner; and also compound ‘and foreign words. words. But the greatest thing is to employ meta- °)| _ ‘phors well. __For this alone cannot be acquired from "| another, but it is an indication of an excellent genius; since to employ metaphors well, is to discern simili- tude”. But of words, the compound are chiefly 10. as suited to dithyrambic verse, the foreign to heroic, eer tas and metaphors to Iambic verse. And in heroic verse, of poetry. indeed, all the above-mentioned words are useful; but in Iambics, because they especially imitate common discourse, those words are adapted which may be also used in conversation. And words of this description are, the proper, the metaphorical} [and the ornamental.| And thus much may suffice concerning tragedy, and the imitation in acting’®.
9 Tl. P. 265.—Pope’s line is, ‘* And distant rocks rebellow to the roar.’’ Twining.
® Ritter objects to this clause. Twining, however, admires and commends its conclusion.
1: Cf. Soph. Céd. col. 987.
12 More clearly expressed in Rhet. iii. 11.5, τὸ ὅμοιον ans ἐν FOAL διέχουσι θεωρεῖν, εὐστόχον.
13 These last words appear to me out of place.
a. On nar- rative oetry. ts simi- larity to tragedy.
8. Praise of Homer, and com- parison with other poets, 458 ARISTOTLE’S [CHAY. ΧΙ CHAP. XXII. On the Epic Poem.
ConcERNING the poetry, however, which is narrative and imitative in metre, it is evident that it ought to have dramatic fables, in the same manner as tragedy, and should be conversant with one whole and per- fect action, which has a beginning, middle, and end, in order that, like one whole animal, it may produce its appropriate pleasure!; and that it may not be like the custom of histories, in which it is not necessary to treat of one action, but of one time, viz. of such things as have happened in that time, respecting one or more persons, the relation of each of which things . to the other is just as it may happen. For as the sea-fight at Salamis, and the battle with the Cartha- ginians in Sicily, though they happened at the same time, tend nothing to the same end; thus also in suc- cessive times, one thing may sometimes be connected with another, from which no one end is produced, But nearly all poets do this. Hence, as we have. before observed, in this respect also Homer will ap- pear to be divine, when compared with other poets, because he did not attempt to sing of the whole of the Trojan war, though it had a beginning and an end. For if he had, it would have been very great, and not sufficiently conspicuous; or if it had been of a moderate size, it would have been intricate through the variety of incidents*. But now, having selected one part of the war, he has made use of many episodes; such as the catalogue of the ships, and other episodes, with which he has adorned his 1 i.e. opposed (as appears from what follows) to that which history gives. Unity of interest is essential to the pleasure we expect from the epic poem; and this cannot exist, at least in the degree required, without unity of action. Twining.
2 Because “ the length of the whole would” then “ not ad- mit of a proper magnitude in the parts;”’ and thus an epie poem constructed upon an historical plan, would be exactly in the same case with a tragedy “constructed on an epic plan.” 'l'wining.
CHAP. XXIV. ] POETIC, 439 poem. Other poets, however, have composed a fable about one man, and one time, and one action, consist- ing of many parts; as the authors of the Cypriacs, and the Lesser Iliad*. [With respect to the Iliad and Odyssey, therefore, one or two tragedies only could be made fromeach. But-many might be made from the Cypriacs; and from the Lesser [liad more than eight; such as the Judgment of the Arms, Philoctetes®, Neoptolemus, Eurypylus ®, the Begging fof Ulysses}, the Lacene, the Destruction of Troy, the Return of the Greeks, Sinon, and the Troades.
CHAP. XXIV. On the Species, Parts, etc. of Epic Poetry.
AGAIN, it is requisite that the epopee should have the same species a8 tragedy. [For it is necessary that it should be either simple, or complex, or ethical, or pathetic'.] The parts also are the same, except the music and the scenery. For it requires revolutions, discoveries, and disasters; and besides these, the sen- 3 Of this kind seems the poem of Ariosto, the exordium of which not only expresses the miscellaneous variety of his mat- ter, but, also, his principle of unity.
Le Donne, i cavalier, |’ arme, gli amori, Le cortesie, |’ audaci imprese, io canto, Che furo al remeo che passaro i Mori, etc.
Ariosto’s expedient was, to “intertwist the several actions to- gether, in order to give something like the appearance of one action’ to the whole, as has been observed of Spenser [{ Let- ters on Chivalry, etc.|: he has given his poem the continuity of -basket-work. Or, if I may be indulged in another comparison, his unity is the unity produced’ between oil and vinegar by shaking them together, which only makes them separate by smaller portions. Twining.
* So called to distinguish it from the Iviad of Homer, of which it seems to have been a continuation. Twining.
5 i, 8, between Ajax and Ulysses. _Zschylus wrote a tra- gedy on this subject, of which the Ajax of Sophocles is tha sequel. Dacier.
Of these two plays nothing is known. Condemned ty Ritter.
γρο. .Φ 1. The species and parts. of epic poetry.
timents and the diction should be well formed; all which were first used by Homer, and are used by him 2. Differ. fitly. For of his two poems, the Iliad indeed con- ence be- tains the simple and pathetic; but the Odyssey, the -hephare complex; for through the whole of it there is dis- Odyssey. covery? and moral. And besides these things, he 3. Length excelled all poets in diction and sentiment. The Sag epopee, however, differs from tragedy in the length poem, § of the composition, and in the metre. But the pro- per boundary of its length has been before described; for it should be such that the beginning and the end may be seen at one view. [ And this will be effected if the compositions are shorter than those of the ancient poets, and brought to the same length with the multitude of tragedies that are recited at one hear- 4. 1Ἰὸ ing%.] But it is the peculiarity of the epopee to power of possess abundantly the power of extending its mag- extension. nitude; for tragedy is not capable of imitating many actions that are, performed at the same time, but that part only whidh is represented in the scene, and acted by the players. But in the epopee, in consequence of its being a narration, many events may be introduced which have happened at the same time, Mecied vw. Staged, Which are properly connected with the subject, and from which the bulk of the poem is increased. Hence, this contributes to its magnificence, transports the hearer to different places, and adorns the poem with dissimilar episodes. For similitude of events rapidly 5. Its produces satiety, and causes tragedies to fail. But prepet heroic metre is established by experience as adapted metre. to the epopee. For if any one should attempt narra- tive imitation in any other metre, or in many 2 See Pope’s translation, xvi. 206, etc., where Ulysses dis- covers himself to Telemachus—xxi. 212, to the shepherds— xxiii. 21], to Penelope—xxiv. 375, to his father—ix. 17, to Alcinous—iv. 150, ete., Telemachus is discovered to Me- nelaus by his tears—y. 189, to Helen, by his resemblance to his father—xix. 545, Ulysses is discovered to the old nurse, by the scar. Twining.
3 This is quite contrary to Aristotle’s own opinion. See Rit- ter. Twining’s great and tasteful learning cannot bring him to any satisfactory explanation of these words.
CMAP. XXIV. | POETIC. 46} metres mingled together, the unfitness of it would be apparent. For heroic metre is of all others the most stable and ample. [Hence it especially receives foreign words and metaphors. For narrative imita- “tion excels all others*.] But Tambics and tetrametres have more motion; the one being adapted to dancing, but the other to acting. It would, however, be still 6. Ob- more absurd, to mingle them together, as Cheremon® ctv a did. Hence, no one has composed a long poem in metres. any other measure than the heroic; but, as we have said, Nature herself teaches us to distinguish the measure best suited. Homer, indeed, deserves to be 7. Praise praised for many other things, and also because he is °f Homer. the only poet who was not ignorant what he ought to do himself. For it is requisite that the poet should speak in his own person as little as possible; for so far as he does so he is not an imitator®. Other γγωων sol epee poets, therefore, take an active part through the ttnex ow Pf whole poem, and they only imitate a few things, and wa tT est seldom’. But Homer, after a short preface, imme- diately introduces a man or a woman, or something else* that has manners; for there is nothing in his poem unattended with manners. It is necessary, 8, The therefore, in tragedies to produce the wonderful; but wonder- τ ἃ ful con- that which is contrary to reason (whence the wonder- τπρβοα; ful is best produced) is best suited to the epopee, reference from the agent not being seen®. In the next place, ἴο tie the particulars respecting the pursuit of Hector onon00, * Condemned by Ritter. 5 Cf, i. 9. 6 Strictly speaking See Dissertation i. p. 27. Twining. 7 This is remarkably the case with Lucan; of whom Hobbes says, that “no heroic poem raises such admiration of the poet as his hath done, though not so great admiration of the persons he introduceth.”” —{ Discourse concerning the Virtues of an Heroic Poem.] Twining. 8 As gods, goddesses, allegorical beings, etc. Twining. 9 The best comment to which I can refer the reader upon all this part of Aristotle, is to be found in the 10th of the Let- ters on Chivalry and Romance, in which the Italian poets, and the privileges of genuine poetry, are vindicated, with as much solidity as elegance, against those whom Dryden used to call his “ Prose Critics,’’—against that sort of criticism ‘‘ which looks like philosophy, and is not.’’—Dr. Hurd’s Die logues, ete, yol. iii. Twining 9. False reasonings respecting poetry.
ther pre- cepts re- specting poetic roba- ility.
462 ARISTOTLE’S [cuar, xxiv.
would appear ridiculous in the scene; the Greeks indeed standing still, and not pursuing, and Achilles making signs to them, by the motion of his head, not to engage”, But in the epopee this is concealed, Now, the wonderful pleases; of which this is an in- dication, that all men, when they wish to gratify their hearers, add something to what they relate. Homer also in the highest degree taught others how to feign in a proper manner. But this is aparalogisny For men fancy that when the consequént»follows or re- sults from the antecedent, the consequent may be converted, and that the antecedent will follow from the consequent. This, however, is false. [But why, if the antecedent be false, so long as this other be otherwise, should the consequent necessarily follow? For through knowing the consequent to be true, our soul paralogizes, and concludes that the antecedent also is true. And there is an example of this in “the Washing 1", Again, one should prefer things which are impossible but probable, to such as are possible but improbable. Fables also should not be composed from irrational parts, [but as much as possible, in- deed, they should have nothing irrational in them: if, however, this is impossible, care should be taken that the irrational circumstance does not pertain to the fable, as in the case of Gidipus not knowing how Laius died'*. For it must not be brought into the drama, like the narration of the Pythian games in the Electra’, or him who, in the tragedy of the 10 Pope’s Iliad, xxii. 267.—Perhaps the idea of stopping a whole army by a nod, or shake of the head, (a circumstance distinctly mentioned by Homer, but sunk in Mr. Pope’s ver- sion,) was the absurdity here principally meant. If this whole Homeric scene were represented on our stage, in the besf manner possible, there can be no doubt that the effect woul¢ justify Aristotle’s observation. It would certainly set the audience in aroar. Twining.
‘1 | follow Ritter’s text and version, but both he and Donald- son regard these words as an interpolation.
‘2 Cf. Soph. Ged. Tyr. 112, sqq. This clause is condemned by Ritter.
"5 Id. Electr. 680, sqq. See my Introduction to Sophocles, p- Xl.
CHAP. Xxv.] POETIC.. 463 Mysians, comes from Tegea to Mysia without speaking.] It is ridiculous, therefore, to say, that otherwise the fable would be destroyed; for such fables should not at first be composed. But if they are composed, and it appears more reasonable that they should be, the absurdity also must be admitted; since the irrational circumstances in the Odyssey, such as Ulysses being left [on the shore of Ithaca by the Pheeacians], would evidently have been intolerable, if they had been fabricated by a bad poet. But now the poet conceals the absurdity, and renders it pleasing by the addition of other beauties. ‘The dic- 11. The tion, likewise, should be laboured in the sluggish diction in parts of the poem, and which exhibit neither manners postive nor sentiment’4, For a very splendid diction con- parts. ceals the manners and the reasoning.
ᾺἋ CHAP. ΧΧΥ͂. On removing critical Objections.
[ Wiru respect to critical objections!, and the solu- 1. Objee tions of them, the number and quality of their species cia, '* The reader may wonder that Aristotle did not add—‘ nor passion.’ Butthat part of the epic and tragic poem, which he calls the sentiments, includes the expression of passion. Twining.
15 * His diction [ Thomson’s] is in the highest degree florid and luxuriant; such as may be said to be to his images and thoughts both their lustre and their shade; such as invests them with splendour, through which perhaps they are not always easily discerned.””—Dr. Johnson’s Life of Thomson. Twining.
1 The original is, Problems. This appears to have been a common title of critical works in Aristotle’s time. Objections, censures, and [86 most unreasonable cavils, were conveyed in the civil form of problems and questions. Thus. many criti- cisms on Homer were published under the title:f Homerie Problems.
The scope of this part of Aristotle’s work is of more import- ance to his subject than, at first view, it may appear to be, In teaching how to answer criticisms, it, in fact, teaches, (as far, I mean, as it goes,) what the poet should do to avoid and their solutions.
3. Error twofold, essential and accidental.
4.
will become apparent from surveying them as follows, Since the poet is an imitator, in the same manner as a painter, or any other person who makes likenesses, it is necessary that he should always imitate one of the three [ objects of imitation]. For he must either imitate things such as they were or are, or such as they are said and appear to be?, or such as they ought to be. But these are enunciated either by [common] diction, or by foreign words and meta- phors. For there are many modifications? of diction; and we concede these to the poets. Besides this, there is not the same rectitude of politics and poetry, nor of any other art and poetry. But of poetry itself, the error is twofold; the one essential, the other accidental. For the error is essential, when it at- tempts to imitate that which is beyond its power; but [when it attempts to imitate improperly, as‘] if, for instance, a horse should be described as moving both its right legs together, or an error in any of the giving occasion to them. It seems, indeed, intended as an apology for Poetry, and a vindication of its privileges upon true poetical principles, at a time when the art and its professors were unfairly attacked on all sides, by the cavils of prosaic philosophers and sophists, such as Ariphrades, Protagoras, Euclid, etc., and by the puritanical objections of Piato and his followers. Twining.
If Ritter’s strictures be true, our acquaintance with Aristotle’s Poetics is now at anend. Ina learned annotation (pp. 263—6) he seems to have completely proved the spurious character ot both this and the following chapter.
3 This includes all that is called faery, machinery, ghosts, witches, enchantments, etc.— things, according to Hobbes, ** beyond the actual bounds, and only within the ‘ conceived possibility of nature.’’ [See the Letters on Chivalry, as above. } Such a being as Caliban, for example, is tmpossible. Yet Shakspeare has mad¢ the character appear probable; not, cer- tainly, to reason, but to imagination; that is, we make no diffi- culty about the possibility of it, in reading. Is not the Lovelace of Richardson, in this view, more out of nature, more impro- bable, than the Caliban of Shakspeare? The latter is, at least, consistent. I can zmagine such a monster as Caliban: I never could imagine such a man as Lovelace. Twining.
3 πάθη, inflections, dialectic variations, etc.
4 These words, τὸ προελέσθαι μὴ ὀρθῶς, are totally incon- siatent with the meaning. See Ritter.
CHAP. Xxv. ] POETIC. 465 arts be committed in poetry, as in medicine, or any other art, when it fabricates things that are impos- sible, these, therefore, whatever they may be, are not the essential errors of poetry. Hence, one must re- fute the objections of critics from surveying these particulars. For in the first place, indeed, the poet errs, if what he fabricates is impossible according to the art itself; but it will be right if the end of po- etry is obtained by it. For we have before shown what the end is, viz. if the poet thus renders what he fabricates, or any other part of the poem, more capable of producing a more striking effect®. An example of this is the pursuit of Hector. If, how- ever, this end can be more or less attained, and that according to the art pertaining to these things, then the fault will not be excusable. For it is requisite if possible to be entirely without error. Further still, it should be considered whether the error ranks among things essential to the poetic art, or foreign and incidental. For it is a less fault not to know that a hind has no horns, than to depict a bad copy of one. Besides this, also, if the poet is blamed for not imitating things as they truly are, the reply is, but he imitates them as they should be. ‘Thus So- phocles said, that he described men such as they should be, but Euripides such as they are. If, how- ever, it should be objected, that the poet represents things in neither of these ways, he may say that he represents them as men say they are; as, for in- stance, in things pertaining to the gods. For per- haps it is neither better thus to speak, nor true, but it is just as it may happen; as Xenophanes observes, “‘ At any rate they tell us such things®.” Perhaps, however, it may be said, that it is not better, indeed, thus to speak, but that the thing was so; as in the passage concerning the arms [of the sleeping sol- diers of Diomed ]: 5 A false definition. See Ritter. 6 « Tyrwhitt’s emendation, ἀλλ᾽ οὖν φασὶν τάδε, seems to be the best of those which have been proposed.” Donaldsen.
5. Whence objections ‘may be removed 9. Dic- tion.
ἔγχεα δέ σφιν ὄρθ᾽ ἐπὶ σαυρωτῆρος, fixed upright in the earth Their spears stood by 7 For such was the custom at that time, as it is now - with the Illyrians. With respect, however, to the inquiry whether a thing is said or done by any one well or ill, we must not only regard the thing itself which is done or said, whether it is good or bad, but we must also [consider] the person by whom it is done or said, viz. concerning whom, or when, or to whom, or on what account, he speaks or acts; as whether it is for the sake of bringing to pass a greater good, or in order to avoid a greater evil. But it is requisite to remove some objections by looking to the diction; as, for instance, to foreign words: On mules th’ infection first began.
For perhaps he does not use οὐρῆας to signify mules, but guards®. And in what he says of Dolon, — εἶδος κὲν ἔην κακός —— of form unhappy It may be said that εἶδος κακὸς does not signify a body without symmetry, but a deformed face. For the Cretans call a man with a good face εὐειδής. And, Ζωρότερον δὲ Kipare —————_” For ζωρότερον may not mean undiluted wine, as for 81), A. 50. Zoilus thought the pestilence should have be- gun with the men first.
® Tl. K. 316. The objection of the critics is supposed, to have been, that an i//-made man could not be a good racer. See Pope’s note. Twining.
10 Tliad ix. 267, 8.—Pope follows the common, and probably the right, acceptation of the word. “‘ Mix purer wine.’’ —Aris- totle’s interpretation has not made its fortune with the critics. He seems to have produced it rather as an exemplification of the sort of answer which he is here considering, than as an opinion in which he acquiesced himself. It was, probably, an answer which had been given. The cavil, according to Plu- tarch, came from Zoilus. [See the Symposiac Prob. of Plut. v. 4, where this subject is discussed, and several other con- jectura! senses of the word Zwpérepov are proposed, ] Twining.
CHAP. XXV-] POETIC. 467 intemperate drinkers, but wine poured out rapidly. But a thing is said metaphorically, as, 10 Meta- The other gods and men" = Slept all the night. And at the same time he says: Ἤτοι ὅτ᾽ és πέδιον τὸ Τρωικὸν ἀθρήσειεν ᾿Αυλῶν συρίγγων θ᾽ ὁμαδόν. - For all is said metaphorically, instead of many, all’?...being a species of many. And thus οἴη δ᾽ ἄμμορος 185. “said of Orion metaphorically. For that which is most known, is called alone or sole. Objections also 11. Ac may be solved from accent, as Hippias the Thasian °°" solved the following passages: δίδομεν δέ οἱ [εὖχος ἀρέσθαι]. And, τὸ μὲν ob καταπύθεται ὄμβρῳ ", Objections likewise may be solved by punctuation; 12, Pune as in the following instance from Empedocles, tuation.
Aira δὲ θνήτ' ἐφύοντο, τὰ πρὶν μάθον ἀθάνατ᾽ εἶναι, Ζωρά τε τὰ πρὶν κέκριτο.""
11 Beginning of I]. iii— What it was that wanted defence in this passage, and that was to be taken metaphorically, we are not told. That it was the representation of the gods as sleep- ing, is the most probable conjecture. This is somewhat soft- ened by Mr. Pope’s “ slumbered.”” Homer says—“ sLert ali the night,”’—evdov παννυχιοι. Twining.
12 πάντες 15 a far-fetched notion from παννύχιοι. The author has blundered between Il. B. 1., and Il. I. 1, and 11—13. See Ritter.
13 []. xxi. 297, has δίδομεν δέ τοι εὖχος ἀρέσθαι, but the line, as here quoted, is not found in Homer. See Ritter. Taylor ob- serves: ‘‘ It alludes to the order given by Jupiter to the dream in Il. ii. to deceive Agamemnon. Here, if δίδομεν is read with an accent in the antepenult, it will signify damus, and will im- ply that Jupiter promises Agamemnon glory from the battle; but if it is read with an accent in the penult, d:dduev, so as to be the infinitive Ionic, it will signify dare. It will therefore imply that Jupiter orders the dream to give the hope of victory to Agamemnon.”’
14 If this is read with the circumflex on the οὗ, it will signify that the oak became putrid by the rain, which is absurd; but if it is read with an acute accent and spiritus lenis οὔ, it will signify mot, and will imply, that the oak was not rotted by the rain. Taylor.
16 The sense here depends on the punctuation. For if the 13. Ambi- guty.
tom of diction.
traries.
468 ARISTOTLE’S [CHAP. XXV Or by ambiguous expressions, as {in Iliad, x.]
παρῴχηκεν δὲ πλέων νυξ'", Night of two parts the greater share had waned, But of her empire still a third remain’d. For the word πλέων is ambiguous. Or objections may be answered from the custom of diction; as when wine is called κεκραμένον, mixed; whence has been said, Greaves of new-wrought tin.