institution of God, to which He hath created man kindly disposed; " and, " when thy Lord drew forth their posterity from the lions of the sons of Adam. " A Tradi- tion of the Prophet says, " Every child is born according to the divine constitution. " These being contradictions in this problem we should try to reconcile them so that they may agree with reason. The verse, " Verily (jrod will cause to err whom He pleaseth, and will direct whom He pleaseth. " refers to the prearranged divine will, with which all things have been endowed. They have been created erring, that is, prepared to go astray by their very nature, and led to it by inner ^nd outer causes. The meaning of the verse, H If we had pleased, we have given unto every soul its direction/ is that He thought of not creating people ready to err, by their nature, or by the outer causes or by both, He could have done so. But as the dispositions of men are different Quran, XXX, 29. Quaan, VII, 171 Quran, XXXV, 9 RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 283 the words may mislead the one and direct the other. For these are the verses which speak of misleading the people. For in- stance, "He will thereby mislead many, and will direct many thereby: but He will not mislead any thereby except the transgress- ors''; and, "We have appointed the vision which we showed thee, and also the tree cursed in the Quran, and the verses about the number of angels of hell. "Thus doth God cause to err whom He pleaseth and He dirtcteth whom He pleaseth.,r It means that for evil natures, these verses are misleading, as for the sick bodies even good drugs are injurious. But some one Moreover, God will not be ashamed to propound in a parable of a great, or even a more despicable thing: for they who believe will know it to be true from their Lord; but the unbelievers will say, what meaneth by this parable? He will thereby mislead etc. Quran, II, 24) Quran, XVII; 6a.By the vision may be meant tht Prophet's night journey to heaven or the vision which he saw at Hudaibiyyah, seeing himself entering Mecca or his vision about the Omayyeds.
Quran, LXXIV, 34 284 AVERROES may object and ask, what was the need of creating a class of men already prepared to err, for this is the worst kind of injust- ice? We would say that divine wisdom designated it so. The injustice would have consisted in its being otherwise. For the nature and constitution of men, in His very creation, are such that they require some men, though very few, to be wicked and evil by their nature. Such is also the case with the outer causes, made for direct- ing the people to the right path, which requires that some men must be bad. If many had been good then the divine law would not have been fulfilled, because either there had not been created things in which there is little evil and much good, for'the good would have disappeared on account of that little evil; or there had -been created things with much good and little evil. Now it is well known that the existence of many good ones with a few evil ones, is better than the non-existence of much good for the sake of little evil. Thig very evil was the thing which remain- RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 285 ed hidden to the angels when God in- formed them that He was going to create upon the earth, a vicegerent, that is, a man, "When God said to the angels, I am going to place a substitute on earth, th?y said, wilt thou place there one who will do evil therein, and shed blood? but we celebrate thy praise, and sanctify Thee. God an- swered, Verily I know that which ye know not." He means that the thing which is hidden from them is that when there is found both good and evil in a thing, and good overpowers the evil, reason requires the creation of the one for the destruction of the other. So from all these it is clear* how misleading can be attributed to Him, in-spite of His justice, and injustice dis- proved. The causes of misleading are created, because from them appear the causes of direction to good. For some peo- ple have not been given causes of direc- tion to good jn which there is found noth- ing which may lead to erring. Such is the condition of the angels. So also the 286 AVERROES 286 AVERROES causes of good have those evil, though in their nature much evil be not found; this applies to man. It may be asked: What is the use of these contradictary verses, thus compelling the people to take refuge in interpretations, which you have abso- lutely forbidden? We would say that to explain this problem to the common peo- ple, they have been compelled to adopt this method. For they should know that God is just, and that He is the Creator of all good and evil, instead of believing, as many nations have done, that there are two Gods, the creator of good, and the creator of evil. So now they know that He is the Crertor of both. As mislead- ing is evil, and as there is no Creator but He, it was necessary that it should be attributd to Him, like the creation of evil. But this should be done without qualify- ing it, that is, that He created good for its own sake, and evil for the sake of good -on account of their connection with one another. In this way His creation of evil Quran, II, 28 RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 287 would be quite just. To illustrate: fire has been made because of its necessity for the existence of things, and without it they could not have < xisted at all. It also des- troys things by its very nature. But if you think of the destruction and evil which it causes, and compare it to the advantages which we derive out of it, you will find that its existence is better than non-existence, that is,-good. Now the verse ot the Quran "No account shall be demanded of him for what He shall do; but an account shall be demanded of them/' means that He does nothing because it is incumbent upon him for it is degrading to him, to need doing a thing. If it be to, God needs that thing for His own existence, because of necessity or to be more perfect in His Being-and God is free from such imperfections. Man is just because he gains something good by being so, which he cannot gain otherwise. God is just, not that He may become more perfect by His justice, but because His perfection requires him to be just. When we understand it in this way it would 288 AVERROES 288 AVERROES be evident, that He is nob just in the same* way as man is just. But it is not right to say that He is not just at all, and that all His actions are neither just nor un- just, as the Mutakallimuns have thought. For it cannot be understood by human intellect, and is at the same time falsi- fying religion. These people knew the meaning but were misled. For if we say that He is not at all just, we falsify the principle that there are things which are just and good in themselves and others which are evil and unjust. Again, if we suppose that He is just in the same way as man is, it becomes} necessary to admit there is some defect in him. For one who is just, his existence is for the sake of things for which he is just, and so he is dependent upon another.
It should now be known that it is not necessary for all the people to be told this interpretation in its entirety. Only those should be told it who have some doubts about this problem. For not every one among the common people is confronted RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 2«> fey these contradictions in the universal verses, and Tradition. Such people musb believe in the exoteric meanings of them. There is another reason for these verses. The common people cannot differentiate between possible and impossible, while to God is not ascribed power over the impossible. If they be told what is impossible (Mustahil) and they think that God has power over it, and then told that God has no power, they begin to think that there is some defect in God, because He cannot do a certain thing and hence He is weak. A.s the existence of things free from evil was possible according to the masses, God has "said, " If we had pleased, we had certainly given every 3011I its direction; but the word which hath proceeded from Me must necessarily be fulfilled, when I said, Verily I will fill the hell with genii and men, altogether."^1 This verse means one thing to the common people, and the other to the learned. The former take it to mean that it is nob 290 AVERROES incumbent upon him that He should create a class of men to whom evil may be attach- ed. But it really means: Had we thought we could create men with whom evil could •not be attached, but would have been good in all and all, and hence every one had been given his guidance. This much is enough for this problem. Now we would deal with the fifth question.
Problem fifth: Of the Conditions of the Day of Judgment:— The Day of Judgment is a thing in which all the religions are agreed, and all the learned men have proved it by argu- ments. The religions differ about the condi- tions of its existence; nay, in reality they do not differ about its condition, but aboufe the visible things by which they should explain to the common people the condi- tions of the unseen. There are some reli- gions which have made it only spiritual, that* is, meant only for the souls; while others have thought it to be both physical and spiritual. The reconciliation in this matter depends upon the testimony of divine reve- lation, and the necessary arguments of all RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 291 the learned men, that is, that for a man there are two blessings: of the present world, and of the world to come, which is itself establi- shed upon principles, admitted by all to be true. One ot them is that when it is clear that all the existent things have not been created in vain, but for some particular work assigned to them, which is the sum total of their life, then man is far fitter to be placed under this category. God himself has warned us of the existence of this pur- pose in all the created things. He says in the Quran, "We have created the heav- ens and the earth, and whatever is between them, in vain. This is the opinion of the unbelievers."^2 Again, He says, describing and praising the learned men, who have understood, the real and inner purpose of this existence, "Who remember God stand- ing, and sitting, and lying on their sides; and meditate on the creation of heaven and earth, saying, O Lord, thou hast not created this in vain; far be it from thee therefore, deliver us from £he torment of 132 Quran, XXXVIII; 26.
392 AVERROES hell fire."^ The ultimate purpose in the creation of man is still more evident in him, than in other things. God has informed us of it in many a verses of the Quran,!He says, "Did ye think that we had created you in sport; and that ye should not be brought again before us,"J34 and, " Doth man think, that he shall be left at full liberty, without con- troP'I^S'and further on He says, "I have not created genii and men for any other end, but that they should serve me."n6 that is the genius out of all creation which could' know him. Again, He says, informing us of the importance of knowing God, "What reason have I that I should not worship him who hath created me? for unto him shall ye return, y>iw Now it being clear that man has been created tor a certain work, it is evident that the work should be of a particular kind. For we see that every- thing has been created for a certain work, which is found in it, and in none other; that 133 Quran. Ill, 188 136 Quran, LI 156 134 Quran, XXIII: 117 137 Quran, XXXVI; 2£ 135 Quran, LXXV, 36 RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 293 is, it is specialised in it. This being eo, it is necessary that the real purpose of man's creation be those deeds which are found in him, and in no other animal. These deeds pertain to his rational powers As there are two portions of the rational powers,- practical and theoretical- it is evident that the first kind of thing is demanded of hfcn. That is, that his faculties of knowledge and science should be found in their perfection. The deed by which soul acquires perfection in those two faculties are goodness and virtue, and those that retard it are evil and wicked. And as these actions are most of them fixed by divine revelation, religions appeared to fix them. With that there also appears a knowledge of those qualities, exhorting the people towards them. They ordered men to act upon good- ness, and shew evil. They taught them the quantity of the deeds which will be good for all the people, both in practice and in knowledge taken together. They also taught them the theoratical know- ledge of things, which all the people should 294 AVERROES 294 AVERROES know, such as the knowledge of God,, angels, of higher creation, and of goodness. In this way they also taught them the quantity of the acts which would be nece- ssary to make the souls excel in virtue. This is especially the case with our reli- gion, Islam, for when compared with other religions, it is found that it is absolutely the best religion. Hence it -was the last of diyine dispensations.
Now divine revelation has informed us in all the religions that the soul will live, and all the argument of the learned people have established the same. The souls are freed from physical desires after death. If they be pure, their purity is doubled by this freedom from desires. If they be evil this separation increases their depravity, for they are troubled by the evil which they have already earned, and their regret in- creases about the opportunities which they lost before their separation from the body, for this purification is not possible without it. It is to this that following verse re- fers:- A soul would say, "Alas, for that *» RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 295 have been negligent in my duties towards God: Verily I have been one of the scor- nera'\I38 All the religions agree about this condition of man, and call it his last good- ness or misery. This being so, there could not be found in the visible world anything which may be given as an illustration, so there is a difference in its description in the revelations given to different prophets. We mean to say, that there is a difference in illustrating the condition of the good and bad soul on that occasion. There are some which have not given any illustrations of that happiness or misery which the good and bad souls will have there. They have only said that the conditions there would be only spiritual#and pleasures angelic. Others have given instances from the visible world; that is, they have given instances from the visible world; that is, they have given the exam- ples of the pleasures here for the pleasures of the next world, after deducting the trouble borne-in acquiring them, and in the same way, they have illustrated the misery there, 138 Quran, XXXIX; 57 296 AVERROES by the example of misery here, after deducting the pleasure which we derive from it. Either the people of these religions received from God revelation* which those did not receive who mad* the next world purely spiritual, or they saw, that, illustrations from things visible are beet understood by the common people and that they are best led so or checked from an action through them. So they said that God will put back the good souls in their respective bodies, and the best possible ease - in paradise. The bad souls will also return to their bodies, where they will be in the;vorst possible mirsery, which they call hell-fire This is true of our religion, Islam, inv illustrating the conditions of the nexft world. There are many verses of the Quran which contain arguments as to the possiblities of the conditions of that world, which can be under- stood and verified by all. For our reasoik cannot apprehend these things more thai* the possibility of knowing which is common RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 397 <to all, and which is of the kind of analogy of the existence of the like from the being -of the like, that is of its coming into being. It is an analogy of the coming into being of the small from the existence of the big iand the great. For instance, God says, a'And He propoundeth unto us a comparison and forgetteth His Creation."^ In these verses the argument used is the analogy of the return of the beginning, when both are equal. In the following verse the argument of those is refuted.vho differ- entiate between the real and return of the same thing. He says, "He giveth you •fire out of a green tree1^5'. The doubt is that the birth was from heat and moisture, while the return will be from cold and dryness. So this doubt is met by the fact that God can create the contrary from the contrary, as He can create the like from the like. The analogy is drawn from the e*ist- <ence of the little from the great. For example, God says, "la not He who has created the Heavens and the earth able to 139 Quran, XXXVI, 78 140 Quran, XXXVI: 80.
298 AVERROES create new creatures like unto them! yea?, certainly; for He is the wise Creator".1^ These verses have two arguments for prov- ing the resurrection and at the same time refuting the arguments of those denying it. Were we to quote the verses which give this proof our discourse would be length- ened. But all of them are of the kind we have mentioned.
So, as we have already said, all the religions are agreed that there is a blessing or misery for the human soul after death, but differ in illustrating the conditions of that moment and in explaining it to the common people. It seems that the illus- tration in our religion is the most perfect) of all for the understanding of the people, and at the same time most inciting of them all to gain for their souls the advantages of that day. And it is the many with whom lies the primary purpose of religion. The spiritual illustration would be least inciting to the common people for desiring the things of hereafter. So they would have 141 Quran, XXXXVI; 81.
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 297 little liking for it, while they would fear the physical illustration. So it seems that the physical illustration would be most exciting to them, than the spiritual, while the latter would appeal only to the contro- versialists among the scholastic theologians, who are always very few in number- Hence we find that the Muslims have been divded into three parties about the meaning of the conditions of the Day of Judgment, One party says that that existence would be just like our present one, as regards pleas- ures and enjoyments, that is, they think that both are of the same genius, but differ in perpetuity and termination: the one is for ever and the others come to an end. The other party thinks that the two exist- ences are different But this is again subdi- vided into two parties. The one thinks that that existence with our present faculties Is spiritual, but has been described as physical. For this there are many religious arguments which it would be useless to repeat here. The other party says that that existence is physical only; but they at the same time joo AVEKROES joo AVEKROES believe, that the body will be different from «our present body. This is only transient, that ■will be enternal. For this also there are reli- gious arguments. It seems that even Abdullah B. Abbas held this view. For it is related of him that he said, "There is nought in this world of the hereafter, but names/'' It seems that this view is better suited to the learned men because its possibility is based upon principles, in which there h sio disagreement according to all men: the one being that the soul is immortal, and -the second is that the return of the souls into other bodies does not look so impossi- ble as the return of the bodies themselves* Jfc is so because the material of the bodies here is found following and passing from one body to another, i. e; one and the same matter is found in many people and in many different times. The example of bodies cannot be found, for their matter is the same. For instance a man dies and his body becomes dissolved into earth. The earth ultimately.becomes dissolved into vegetable, which is eaten by quite a REGILION AND PHILOSOPHY 301 different man from whom another man comes into being. If we suppose them to be different bodies, then our aforesaid- view cannot be true.
The truth about thil question is that man should follow th*t which he himself has thought out bub anyhow it should not be the view which may deny the funda- mental principle altogether. For this would be denying its existence. Such a belief leads to infidelity, on account of a distinct knowledge of this condition being given to* man, both by religion and by human reason^ which is all based upon the eternal nature of the soul. If it be said whether there is any argument or information in the Law about this eternal nature of the soul, we would say that it is found in the Quran itself God says, " God taketh unto him* self the souls of men at the time of their death; and those which die not He also taketh in their sleep."1'*2 In this verse sleep and death have been placed upon the same level, on account of the change in its instru- 142 Quran, XXXIX; 43.
302 AVERROES merit, and in sleep on account of a change in itself. For had it not been so it would not have corup to its former condition after awakening. By this means we know that this cession does not effect its essence, but was only attached to it on account of change in its instrument. So it does not follow that with a cessation of the work of the instru- ment, the soul also ceases to exist. Death is only a cessation of work, so it is clear that its condition should be like that of sleep. As someone has said that if an old man were to get the eyes of the young, he would begin to see like him.
This is all that we thought of in an exposition of the beliefs of our religion, Islam. What remains for us is to look into things of religion in which interpreta- tion is allowed and not allowed. And if allowed, then who are the people to take advantage of it \ With this thing we would Snish our discourse.
The things found in the Law can be divi- ded into five kinds. But in the first place, there are only two kinds of things: indivi- RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 303 Bible and the divisible. The second one is divided into four kinds. The firstkind which is mentioned in the Quran, is quite olear in its meanings. The second is that in which the thing mentioned is not the thing meant but is only an example of it. This is again divided into four kinds. First, the meanings which it mentions are only illus- trations such that they can only be known by the far-fetched and compound analogies, which cannot be understood, but after a long time and much labour. None can accept them but perfect and excellent natures; and it cannot be known that the illustration given is not the real thing; except by this far-fetched way. The second is just the opposite of the former: they can be understood easily, and it can be known that the example is just what is meant here. Thirdly, it can be easily known that it is merely an illustration, but what it is the example of is difficult to comprehend. The fourth kind is quite opposite to the former. The thing of which it is an example, is easily under* 304 AVERROES 304 AVERROES stoodj while it is difficult to know that \% is an example at all. The interpretation of the first kind is wrong without doubt. The kind in which both the things arer farfetched: its interpretation particularly lies with those who are well-grounded i» knowledge; and an exposition of it is not fit for any but the learned. The interpreta- tion of its opposite - that which can be understood on both the sides- is just what is wanted, and an exposition of it is nece* ssary. The case of the third kind is like the case of the above. For in it illustra- tion has not been mentioned because of the difficulty for the common people to understand it: it only incites the people to action. Such is the case with the tradi- tion of the prophet; " The black stone i$ God's action on Earth, " etc. etc. That* which can be easily known that is an example, but difficult to know of which it is example, should not be interpreted but for the sake of particular persons and learned men. Those who understand that it is only an illustration, but are not?
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 305 learned enough to know the thing which it illustrates, should be told either that it is allegorical and can be understood by the well-established learned men; or the illustration should be changed in a way which might be near to their understand- ing. This would be the best plan to dispell doubts from their minds.
The law about this should be that which has been laid down by Abu Hamid ( Al Ghazzali) in his book, Al Tafriga bainal Islam ival Zindiga, It should be under- stood that one thing has five existences which he calls by the name of essential ( Zati ); sensual ( Hissi ); rational ( Agli ); imaginative ( Khayali ) and doubtful ( Shilbhi ). So at the time of doubt it should be considered which of these five kinds would better satisfy the man who has doubts. If it be that which he has called essential than an illustration would best satisfy their minds. In it is also included the following traditions of the Prophet, u Whatever the earlier prophets saw I have seen it from my place here, 306 AVERROES 306 AVERROES even heaven and hell/' " Between my cistern of water and the pulpit, there is a garden of paradise;" and '• The earth will eat up the whole of a man except the extremitv of the tail." All these, it can easily be known are but illustrations, but what is the thing which they illustrate, it is difficult to comprehend. So it is nece- ssary in this case to give an instance to the people which they may easily understand. This kind of illustration, when used on such an occassion is allowable; but when used irrelevently it is wrong. Abu Hamid has not decided about the occasion when both the sides of the question - the illustra- tion and the illustrated - be both far-fetched and difficult to understand. In 1 his case there would apparently be a doubt, but a doubt without any foundation. Whafe should be done is to prove that the doubt has no basis, but no interpretation should be made, as we have shown in many places in our present book against the Mutakallimun, Asharites and the Mutazalites.
The fourth kind of occasion is qu te RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY 307 opposite to the former. In this it is very difficult to understand that it is an example, but when once understood, you can easily comprehend the thing illustrated. In the interpretation of this also, there is a con- sideration: about those people who know that if it is an example, it illustrates such and such a thing; but they doubt whether it is an illustration at all. If they are not learned people, the best thing to do with them is not to make any interpretation, but only to prove the fallacy of the views which they hold about its being an illustration at all. It is also possible that an interpretation may make them still distant from the truth, on account of the nature of the illustration and the illustrated. For these two kinds of occasions if an interpretation is given, they give rise -to strange beliefs, far from the law which when disclosed are denied by the common people. Such has been the case with the Sufis, and those learned man who have followed them. When this work of interpretation was done b}' people who 3o8 AVERROES 3o8 AVERROES could not distinguish between these occa- sions, and made no distinction between the people for whom the interpretation is to be made, there arose differences of opinion, at last forming into sects, which ended in accusing one another with unbelief. All this is pure ignorance of the purpose of the Law.
From what we have already said the amount of mischief done by interperetation must have become clear to you. We always try to acquire our purpose by knowing what should be interpreted, and what not, and when interpreted, how it should be done; and whether all the difficult port- ions of the Law and Traditions are to be explained or not. These are all included in the four kinds which have already been enumerated.
The purpose of our writing this book is now completed. We took it up because we thought that it was the most impor- tant of all purposes - connected with God and the Law -P- -P- VJ1 > H- < H- 0> H- ^ ►1 O (D 0) < & ^ M ^ O O CO 0> O CO ^ THE INSTITUTE OF MEDIAEVAL STUL'.o 10 ELMSLEY PLACE TORONTO 6, CANADA.
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