Plato 111 his “Republic” allows the luleis to appoint indmduals to then jiaiticiilai class, and assign to them then paiticulai tasks (§ 185, note) In feudal-iiioiiaichy vassals had to iieitoiin a siinilaily unlmiitud seivice, and simply 111 then paiticiilaiity to dischaige such a duty as that of a ]udge Sei vices in the East, such as the vast undertakings in aichitectiiie lu Egipt, aie also in qualiti’ particulai In all these relations Ihcie is lacking the IJiinciplc of siibjectne ficedoui In iiecoidauce Tvith this Ijriiiciple, the substantive act oi the mdiMdnal, ■n-lncli even in the above-mentioned seivnces is in its content iiaiticiilai should jjioceed fiom his iiaitieiilai mil This light is possible only Tvlien the demand for ivoik lests njiou the basis of nimeisal value Thiough the influence of this light the substitution of monev foi soivices has been intioduccd A<tditio)i — The two aspects of the constitution lefei to the lights and the sei vices of nidnidiials The seiiices aie now almost all leduccd to nuniev ilihtaiy duty is peiliaps the only leiiiaining pei'Oii.il scivico In ioimei times claim was made to the conciete mdiMclual, who was summoned to woik iii accoiclance with Ins skill Now the- state buys what it needs This may seem alistiact, dead and unfeeling It iiiai also seem as il to be satisfied with abstiact sei vices vcie foi the slate a letiogiade step But the piiiiciplc of the modem state luvolies that eieiything which the individual does should be occasioned In his mil By means of money the pistice inii>hed ni c“quahty tan be much better substantiated The talented would be more heavih taxed than the man without talents if respect were had to concrete capacity But now, out of reverence foi subjective liberty, the principle is biought to light that only that shall be laid hold upon which is of a nature to be laid hold upon 300 In the legislative function in its totality aie active botli the monarchical element and the executive The THK STAl’E.
monarchical gives the final decision, and the executive element advises The executive clement has concrete knowledge and ovei sight of the whole in its many sides and in the actual piinciples firmly rooted in them It has also acquaint.iiu e with the wants of the offices of state. In the legislatiiie aie at last leinesented the different classes oi estates Addition — It pioceods fiom a wioug view of the state to exclude the membeis of the executive from the legis- latuie, as was at one time done by the constituent assemhly In England the minidei^* are lightly members ot jiailiaiueiit, smce those who shaie in the executive should stand in connection with and not in opposition to the legislatuie The idea that the functions of govern- ment should be independent contains the fundamental eiioi that thoi should check one another But this inde- pendence IS ajit to usuip the uuity ot the state, and unity is ahovo all tilings to be desiiod 301 By admitting the classes the legislatuie gives not simply implicit but actual existence to matteis of geueial con com The element ol sub]octno loimal ficedom, the public I oiisciousuess, oi the empiiical univei salitj'' of the vien s and thoughts of the many, heie becomes a icality.
-Vote — The expiessiou “The Manx-” (o! iroWoi) chaiac- teri/es the empnical univeisahtv bettei than the woid “ All," nhicli IS 111 cuiient use Undei this “ all,” children, wouieu, etc, aio manifestlv not meant to be included. Manifestly, theiefore, the definite toim “ all” should not be employed, when, it may be, some quite indefinite thmg IS being discussed Theie aie found in cm rent opinion so unspeakably many perveited and false notions and sayings concerning the people, the constitution, and the classes, that it xvould be a vain task to specify, explain, and eoi i eet them When it IS aigued that an.issuiubly of estates is necessary and advantageous, it is meant that the peojile’s deputies, or, IIIK PHILOSOPHY OF HKJHI.
indeed, the people itself, must best uiiclei stand tlieii own mteiest, and that it has undoubtedly the tiuest desiie to secure this luteiest but it is lathei tiuo that the people, in so fai as this teini signifies a siiccial jiait ot the citizens, does not know ivhat it w ills To kuoiv w liiit « e will, and inithei what the absolute will, naiiieb leason, wills, is the iiuit ot d<“eji knowledge and insigdit, and is theiefoie not. the jnoiieity of the people It lequiies but little letleclioii to see that the seiMces perfoimed bv the classes in behalf ot the geuei.il well-being and public libeiti cannot be tiaced to an insight special to these classes The highest state olhiiaK liaie iiecessaiih deepei and nioie coinpiebeusice insight into the woikings and needs of the state, and al-o gieatei skill and widei piactical expeiieiue They aie able without the classes to secure the best lesults. lust as it is tbei who must con- tiiiualh do this when the (lasses aie in aitnal assembly Geuoial well-being does not theieloie di jieiid iq'oii the paiticular insight of the (lasses, but is lathei the.ichieve- nient ot the ofhdal deputies Theu (an inspect the woilc of the oflicois who aie taithcst leinoM'd tioiu the obseiia- tiou ot the chief lunctiouaiies ot state They, too, haie a concieto peiception ot the inoic uigeiit special needs and defects But to this iiitelhgent tneisighl must be added the possibility of public censuie This possibiliU has the ettcct of c.illmg out the best insight upon public aitaiis and piO]ects, and also the puiest motiies, its mflueiKe is felt b} the lueiiibeis of the classes themselves As ioi the coiisjucuously good will, which is said to be shown by the classes towards the geueial interest, it has already lieen lemaiked (§ 272, note) that the masses, who in geueial adojit a negative standpoint, take for granted that the will of the goveriiineiit is evil oi but little good If this assumption weie replied to in kind, it would lead to the reciimiuation that the classes, since the}' oiiginate in individuaht}, the private standpoint and particular m- THE SIA'IE terests, aio apt to puisue thcbo things at the exjieuse of the univeiaal inteiost, while the otliei elements of the state, being alieady at the point of view of the state, aie devoted to univeisal ends As foi the pledge to lespeot the 2 )ublio nelfaie and lational fieedoni, it should be given espcLially by the ( lasses, but is shaied m by all the othei mstitul Kills of state Tins guaiaiitec is present lu such institutions as the soveieignt}' oi tlie nioiiaich, hereditaiy succession, and the constitution ol the laiv-couits, much moie I'louonncedly than in the classes The classes, theie- foie, aie specially maiked out b\' then containing the sub- ]e< tive element of imiieisal libeity In them the peculiar insight and peculiai will of the siiheie, which in this ticatise has been called the ciiic coiuinuuitv, is aetuahved in iclatiou to the state It is heie as elsewheie by means of the philosophic point of view that this element is discerned to bo a inailc of the idea when develojied to a totality This iiiiiei necessity is not lo be confounded with the evteiual necessities and utilities of this phase of state activity Adchtioti — The attitude of the govciumentto the classes must not be in its essence hostile The belief in the necessity of this hostile lelatioii is a sad mistake The govei niiient is not one paitj which stands ovei against anothei, in such a uay that each is seeking to wiest some- thing fioin the other It the state should find itselt in such a situation, it must be legaided as a misfoitune and not as a sign of health Fiuthei, the taxes, to which the classes give then conseut, aie not to be looked upon as a gift to the state, but aie contiibuted toi the interest of the contributors The peculiar significance of the classes or estates is this, tliat thiough them the state enteis mto and begins to shaic in the 8ub-)ective consciousness of the jieople 302 The classes, considcied as a mediatiug oigau, stand between the government and the people at lai'ge in their HIE PHILOSOPHY OF BIGHT several siiheres and individual cajiacities This sjiecific designation of the classes lequnes of them a sense and sentiment both foi the state and goveinment and toi the interests of special ciicles and individuals This position of the classes has, in common vritli the omanized executive, a mediatoiial function It ne thei isolates the jainceh function as an extieine, causing it to apjiear as a mere luling poivei acting capiiciouslv, noi does it isolate the particular iiitoiests of conimmnties, coipoiatious, aud indi- viduals Furthermoie, individuals aie not in it contrasted ivith the organized state, and thus aic not piesented as a mass or lieaji, as unoiganized ojunion aud will, oi as a iiieie collective foice Xote — It IS one ot the fundamental piinciples of logic, that a definite element, which, v\ In n standing in opposition, has the healing of an extieme. ceases to he in ojiposition and becomes an oigaiiic clement, when it is observed to be at the same time a iiic-an In this pie^eut cpiestioii it is all the moie impoitant to nialce piominent this pumiple, since the piepidK o is as common as it is daugeious i\hith pieseuts the classes as essentiallv in C)p2)ositioii to the goveninient Taken uigamcallv, that i-, in its lotnhtv, the element of the classes jaoves its light oiih tliioiigh its office of mediation Thus the opjiosition is leclin ed to meie appeai'ance If it, in so fai as it is manifested weie not I onceined meielc nitli the siipeifacial aspect of things but became a substantive ojiposition, the state iiould be con- ceit ed of as in decat — That the antagonism is not of this ladical kind is shown by the fact that the obiects, against which it IS directed, are not the essential phases of the politiial organism, hut things that are more special and inchfteient The passion, which attaches itself to this opiiosition, becomes mere party seeking foi some subjective Intel est, perhaps foi one of the higher offices of state AiJdition — The constitution is essentially a sistem of inoduition. In despotic lands wheie there are only princes THE STATE.
and people, the j’^ople aot, if they act at all, m such a way as to disturb oi dostioy the pohtical oigauizatiou But when the multitude has an oiganie iclation to the whole, it obtains its interests m a light and oideily way If this middle teini is uot present, the utteiaiice of the masses is always violent Thciofoie, tlie despot tieats the people with iiidnlgenie while his layc attects only those in his immediate ucighbouihood So also the people in a des- potism pav light taxes, which iii a constitutional state be- come laigei Ihiough the people’s own consciousness In no othei land aie taxes so heaxv as they aie in England 303 The univeisal class, the class devoted to the service of the goxeiiiinent, has diiectlx' luits.stiuctme the umveisal as the end ot its (-sseutial actmtv In that bianch of the legislatiie function, xvhuh contains the classes, the jinx ate mdixidual attains political significance and efficiencj Hence, piiiato peisoiis cannot iippeai in the legislatuie eithoi as a iiieic uudistiuguishccl mass, or as an aggiegate of atoms In fact, 1 hex alteadx <-xist undei two distinct aspects They aic found in the class, xvhich is based on the sulistautivo i elation, and also m the class based upon paitic ulai luteiests aiicl th" labom by xvhich they aie SC-caned (§201 and iol ) Onlx in this xvay is the actual paiticulai lu the slate setuieh all.nlied to the umveisal Kiite — This view makc-s againsl auotliei xvidespiead idea, that since the piixate class i-. m the legislatuie exalted to paiticipatiou ill the uiiix-cisal buMiie-.s. il must ajipear iii the foim ot indixiJuals, be it that representatives aie chosen for this puipose, or that eieiy person shall exercise a voice But even m the family this abstiact atomic view is no longer to bo found, nor in the civic community, m both of xvlncli the individual makes his appearance only as a mombei of a unixeisal As to the state, it is essentiallx' an organization, xvhose members aie independent s^iheres, and m it no jiliaso shall show itself as an unorganized multitude. The many, as individuals, whom we aie prone lUK IMIILOSOPIIY OF lUOlIl.
to call the iieople, aic indeed a collective whole, hut uieieh as a multitude oi fomiless mass, whose movement and action would he elemental, void of leason, violent and teiiible When in lefeience to the constitution ue still heai the people, that is, this unoigiinv/cd iii.iss spoken ot. we may take it ioi jji anted thatiie shall he t'lien onlv fjenerahties and uaijied declamations The iieiv leading to the disiiiteni.Llion ot the comuiou existence touml in tlie vaiions < lules, ulm h aie elements in the pohtical uoild oi highest loimele nmveisalili, would seek to divide the civic fioiu the politnal hie The basis of the state would then he onl\ tlie ahstiact indiMdiiahty of wilfubiess and ojimiou, a ioundation iiliidi is meieh accidental, and uot absolutely.steadt.ist and aulhoiitalne That would he like huiklmgjiolitical hie lullie an Althoui'li m these so-called tlieoiies the cl.isses ot the (i\ic com- munity geueiallv and the classes in then political surni- ficance he fai apait, \et speech has ictamed (hen iiuitj a union which indeed existed long ago 304 The distinction ot classes, winch is ahe-ade pieseiit in the eaiher spheies, is contained also uitliiii the stiict cucuinfeience of the political classes geiieially Their ahstiact position is the extieme oi eiiipiiic al uiusei&ahty in ojiposition to thepiimelv cn mouaicliical piniuiple In this ahstiact position theio is only the possibility ot agi ce- ment, and hence cpiite as much the 2 ->oi>siliihty of aii- tagomsm It becomes.i leasonahle lelation, and leads to the conclusion ot the syllogism 302, tiole), only it its middle term, or element of mediation, becomes a leahty Just as fiom the side of the princely function the execu- tive (§ 300) has alieady this chaiactei of reconciliation, so also fiom the side of the classes should one ot then elements be converted into a mediating teim 306 Oi the classes of the civic community one contains the pi me nile, which is really callable ot hllmg this pohtical position This IS the class, whose ethical choractci is THE STA'IE natuial As its basis it has tamily life, and as regaids subsistence it has the possession ot the soil As regaids its jiaiticulaiity it has a will, which lests upon itseH, and, in common nith the jn nicely function, it beais the mark of natuie 306 111 its I'olitical 2'osi1ion and significance this class becomes mole ileaih defined, nhen its means aie made as indeiiendcnt ot the ■nealtli ol the state as they are ot the unceitaiiity of tiade, the desiiefoi gam, and the fluctuations of jiiopeity It IS secuie fioiii the tavoui at once of the executne and (>t tlie multitude It isfiirthei secuied even from its own cainice, since the inombeis of this class, i\lio are called to this ofiice, do without the lights exeicised by the othei citizeus Thee do not tieely dispose of then projieity, iioi do they dnide it eipially among their childieu, ■whom they loie ec^uall) This wealth becomes an inalienable iiiheiitauce buidened bv ^nimogenituie Adchtioii — This cltiss has a moie ludepeudeut volition The class ot jHopeit} owiieis is dnided into two bioad jiaits, the educated and the jteasaiits Incontiadi&tiuction to these two kinds stand both themdustiial class, which is deiiendent on and dnected In the geneial wants, and the uuiveisal class, which is esseiitialh cle2)endent u2ion the state The sei imty and stability ot this pi 02101 tied class inai he incieased still uioie by the institution of jirimogeui- tuie This, howc‘vei,is desiiable only m reieieiice to the state, since it entails a saeiifice toi the 2>olitical 2iurpose of giving to the eldest son an indeyiendent life Primogeni- ture is instituted that the state may reckon upon, not the mere yiossibility belonging to sentiment, but upon some- thing necessaiy No'w sentiment, it is tiue, is not bound up with a com2)eteiice But it is lelatively necessary that some having a sufhcient property and being thereby freed from external 2>ies&uie, should step foith without hindiauce aud use thou actii ity for the state But to establish and foster primogenituie where there are no political mstituriiE piiiLosopiir OF right tions would lie iiotliint; but a fetter elo£igui<j' tlic freedom of private ii^ht Unless this fieedom is supplemented by the political sense, it goes to meet its dissolution 307. The light of this pait of the substantive class IS based upon the uatiiie-piiiK ijile of the famili But thiough heaij' saciifices foi the state tins piiniiple is tiansfoiined, and by the tiaiisfoimation Hus class is set apart foi jiolitical activity Hence it is called and entitled to this spheicby biith, without the.leeideiit of choice It thus leceives a stable substantive situation intei mediate between the sub]ective cajiiice and the accidents of the two extremes "While it lesenibles the juniceli function (§ 306), it paiticipates in the uaiits and lights of the othei extreme It thus becomes a suppoit at oiu e to the throne and to the c onimiinity 308 Undei the othci pait of the genoial class elenieiit IS found the fluctuating side of the ciiiccommuiiitv, which externally becaiiso of its numeious niembei ship, and neces- sarily because of its natuic and oicup.itioii, t.ikes pait m legislation onlv tliiougli deputies II the (iin coiiiiiinnity appoints these deputies, it does so in accoidaiice with its leal nature It is not a numbei of atoms gatlieiing to- gethei meiely foi a particular and inoiiicntaiv act without any furthei bond of union, but a bodv sistematieallv composed of constituted societies, < ommunities, and loi- poiations These vaiious cmles leceiie in this wav jiobtical unity Thiough the lust claim of this pait to be lepie- sented bv a deputation to be summoned by the piiucely power, and also thiough the claim of the fiist part to make an appearance (§ 307), the existence of the classes.and of then assembly finds its pecuhar constitutional giiaiantee.
Note — It is held that all should shaie individually in the counsels and decisions regarding tlie general affairs of state The leason assigned is that all aie membcis of the state, its affairs aie the affairs of all, and foi the tiansac- tiun of these aJflairs all with then knowledge and will have THE STATE a right to be iiicseiit. This is a notion ivhicli, although it has no reasonable ioim, the demouatic element "would inscit into the oigaiiism of state, notwithstanding the fact that the state is an oigamsni only because ot its leasonalile ioim This supeificial "view fastens upon and adheres to the alisliautiou “ iiiembei oi the state ” But the rational method, the coiis( lousiiess ot the idea, is concrete and is eonibiiied i\ith the tine practical sense, which is itself nothing else than the lational sense oi the sense for the idea Yet Hus sense is not to be confounded with meie husmoss loutuie, oi hounded b\ the lioiizon of a limited s 2 iheie The conciete state is the whole, aiticulated into its jiaiticulai elides, and the iiieinliei of the state is the inembei of a cucle oi class Oul\ his objective chaiactei can 1)0 iccoginzcd m the state His general chaiactei con- tains the tuofoki clement, junate peison and think- lug iK'isoii, and thiuKiiig is the consciousuess and will- ing of the uuueisal But constiousiii'ss and will cease to be emiity oiilv when they aie filled with jiai ticulaiity, and b\ jiaiticulaiity is meant the diaiacteiistic of a jiaitieiilai class The individual is sjiecies, let us say, but has his mtiinsic geucial actuality in the sjiecies next above it He attains actual and vital coutact with the umveisal in the S 2 )heie ot the coijioi.itious and societies (§ 251) It lemaiiis ojieii to him bv means ol his skill to make his wav into any class, foi idiich he has the La])acity, mcludmg the umveisal class Aiiothei assumjfiiou. found in the cuiient idea that all should liai e a shaie iii the business of state, is that all uudeistand this husiuess This is as absuid as it, despite its absuichtj, is widespioad However, thiough the channel of jiuhhc oiiimon (§ 316) eveiy one is fiee to express and make good liis subjective opinion concerning the umveisal 309 Counsels and decisions ujwu umveisal concerns re- cpiiie delegates, who aii‘ chosen uiidei the belief that they have a better understanding of state business than the I III: PIIILOSOPIIY Ol' KKJiri electois tlicmselvcs Tlievaie ti listed to piosciute not the pni'ticiilar lutei est of a t omtunnitvoi a loi poiation in opposi- tion to the 111111 01 sal, Init the iiim ei s,il oiilv Hence to the deputies.iic not eoininitted speiihe inanil.ites oi explicit iiistiiictions But piht as little has Ihe assemhlv tlu‘ cha- racter meiely of a lively a;atheiine of pm sons, each of whom IS hent upon instnictin£{, (oiivim iinr. and advisiiie; tlu* lest Addiiion — In the lase of ic]»ie~enta 1 ioii consent is not sjiven diiectlv l>v all. hut hv those iilio,iie (jiialified. siine here the incliiidu.il lotei is no lontrci a ineic infinite peison Iccpieseiitation is hased upon confideine, hut confidence is diileient fioin smiplv castiin; a lote To ho guided hy the maioiitv ot votes is anlayonistic to the princiiilc th.at I must meet mv duly as a pai'ticiihii person We have (onficlencc in a iiei'ini iihen we helievp in Ills insiirht and his inlliiiffness to tie.il inv nftaiv as his own accoidiiiff to the hest lisht ot his Iniowledgo and < on- science Thi’ piiiiciplo of the individual sulip'clivo will also disapjieais, for confidence is loiueined with a thing, the guiding hIcmIs of a man. Ins hehavioiii. his acts his concrete iinclei standing A lejnesenhihie must have a character, insight, and will lapahle of paitn i^iatiiig in iiiiiveisal husiucss He s])ealcs not in his cliaiactei as an ahstiact individual, hut as one iiho secies to inalce good his inteicsts in an assemhlv occupied with the iinixcisal And the elector-, merely ask for some gnaiantee that the dele- gate shall laiiv out and fmthci this universal 310 Indejiendciil moans has its light in th(“ fii st ^siit of the classes The guarantee implied in a qualification and sentiment adequate to public ends is found in the second pair, which aiises out of the fluctuating, variable element of th(' ( ivic community It is chiefly found in sentiment, skill and piactical knowledge of the mteiests of the state .ind civil community, all of which qualities aic acqniied lliiough actual conduct of husiiiess in the iiiagistiacies and pulilic olnces, anclaiepieseivedhi pi actical use Itiafuuud Tin: STATE 319 present, too. in the ofRnal oi political sense, ■which is fashioned and tested hv.irtual expel lence Note — Snhiective opinion leadily finds *the demand for jruarant(>es.snjierflnons oi inpiiions, when it is made upon the so-called ]iro])le But the* state eontams the oh]ective as its clistin!j;mshiii« li.iit, and not snhiective opinion ■with its self-confidcnice Indnidnals can he foi the state only what 111 them is ohicttivclv i eeo«ni7,ihle and approved. Since this second pait of the cl.iss edennent has its root m paiticulai niteicsis and toncoiiis, where accident, change, .and capiice have the light to disjioit themselves, the state mnsi hcic' look the inoie closely.iflci the ob^jective The extciual qnalification of a coitain pioperty appears, when ■lake'll ahshac ilv, a onc'-sidcd cxteinal extieme, m con- tiast nith the otlioi pist as one-sidcd extieme, namelv,the mcie snhiective coiifidente and opinion of the electors Each 111 its absti.iition is distingni^hcd from the conciete cjiialific ations, indicated in § 302 which aie locpiiied of those wlio advise c onu'ining the bnsmess of state — Never- thc'lc'ss. in the choice' of a magistiato or othci officei of a society 01 an assoc lation, a piopcitv C|nahfi( ation is rightly inaclo,i condition, espcciallv as ninchof the business is ad- luiiiisteied witliont lemnnc-iation Tins qualification has also diiect value' in legard to the political business of the classes, if tlie incrabc'is iccoive no salaiv 311 T)e]inties fiom the civic ronimnnitv should be acquainted with the iiaiticulai needs and iiiteiests of the bodi ■svhich thej lepiesent, and also with the special obstacles which ought to be lemoved They should theie- foic be clioson fioin amongst themselves Such a delega- tion is natni.illv appointed by the difPeront corporations of the civic commmntv (§ 308) by a simple piocess, which is not distmbod by abstiactions and atomistic notions Thus they fulfil the point of view of the community diiectlv, and eithei an elc'ctioii is altogethci superfluous, or the play of opinion and capiice is reduced to a minimum.
'iiir PHILOSOPHY OF Eioiir.
Note — It IS a manifest advantacte to have anion>;st the delegates individuals who lepieseiit eveiy consideiahle special hiaiich of the community, such as trade, iiiauii- factuie, etc These individuals must be thoionghly ac- quamted with then Inanth and belong to it In the idea of a loose, indefinite election this important tiicuinstaiico is given o^el to accident Even branch, hovevei, has an equal rnilit to be ropiescnted To regard llii' deputies as repi esentatives lias a signihiaine that is oiganic and rational, only if they aie not lejnesentatnes of meie sejiarate individuals oi of a lueie inultiliide, but of one of the essential spheies of the (ominumh and of its laigei interests Eepiesentation no longei means th.it one poison should take tlio place of aiiothei Eatliei is tlio mtoiest itself actually pieseiit m the xieison ot the icpiesentatne, smce he is tlioio in behalf of his own oli)e(lne natuie Of elections by means of nitinv s(‘])aiato ja'isons it ma\ be observed that theic is necessaiily little dcsiie to rote because one vote has so slight an iiilluence Even ■when those who aie entitled to vote aie told how es.iu‘nioly valuable then pnnlege n, thcv do not vote Hence occius _]ust the opposite of what is sought The selection j’asscs into the hands of a few, a single p.iity, oi a special acci- dental inteiest, which should lathei be neutializecl 312 Of the two elements compiised under the classes, each bungs into council a paitu nlai inodifii atioii As one of these elements has within the sjdici o ot the classes the peculiai function of mediation, and that, too, between tuo things winch both exist, it has a separate existence The assembly of the classes is thus divided into two chambeis.
313 Bv this separation the nnmhei of coiiits is in- creased, and there is a greatei ceitaiiity of matuie judg- ment Moreover, an accidental decision, secuicd on tlie spui of the moment by a simple niajoiity of the votes, is rendeied iiincli less piobable But these aic not the mam advantages Theie is, besides, smallei oppoitunity oi THE STATE occasion foi diiect opposition to arise between the class element and the Eioverninent Or in the case -when the mediating element is also found on the side of the lower chambei, the insight ot this lonei house becomes all the stioiigei, since it in this case appeals to be more impartisan and its ojiposilion to be ncutialized 314 The classes aie not the sole investigators of the aftaiis ot state and solo indges of the general interest. Rathei do then loini ineielv an addition (§ 301) Then distmctiio tiait is that, as then lepicsent the membeis of the ciiic C'onimuinti who lia^e no shaie in the government, it is thiongh then co-o])eiating knowledge, connsel, and judgment that the element of toinial fieedom attains its light Resides, a geneial acquamtame with state affairs is 11101 e widely extended thiough the publicity given to the tiansactioiis of tlio classes 315 Bi moans of tins avenue to knowledge pubhc opmiou lust attams to tiue thoughts, and to an insight luto the condition and concojitiou ot the state and its concerns It thus hist leaclies the capacity of judging latioiially concemiiig them It leains, besides, to know and esteem the iiiauageuieiit, talents, ciitues, and skill of the diffeiont oiliceis of state While these talents by re- ceiving public itv aie given a stioiig impulse towaids levelopmeut and an lionouiablc held foi exhibiting their woitli, they aie also an antidote toi the pride of indi- iidnals and of the multitude, and aic one of the best means toi then education Addition — To open the pioceedmgs of the assembly of classes to the public is of great educational value, especially for the citizens By it the jieople leain most certainly the tiiie natuie of then mtciests Theie prevails extensively the idea that everybody knows already what is good for the state, and that this gcncial knowledge is merely given uttciaucc to in a state assembly But, indeed, the very opposite is the fact Here, hrst of all are developed T TllK PHILOSOPHY OF EIGHT virtues, talents, skill, ■vvliidi have to aer\e as examples Indeed, these assembheM may be awkward for the mimsters, who must here buckle on then wit and eloquence ti> resist the attack''- (>! their opp."euts Pnbhcitj is the greatest opportunity tor instructnni in the state interests ijener- ally. Amongst a ]ieopl(*, itheie publicity is the rule, there is seen quite a difterent attitude towaids the state than in those ])laeC‘S tiheie state assembln s aie lejt found or are seciet Us the publication of evi'ry pioceediu'^, the chambeis are hist bioiiuht into union mill the lar^ei "Cneral opinion It is shown that uhiit a man fancies when he is at home with his wife and friends is one thin!,', and quite another thintf what oicuis in a i^reat ‘'athenno' wheie one clevei stioke annihilates the j*i( < edin" 316 Formal suhiertive fictdoni, iniphiu!' that indi- viduals as such should have and express then own judit- ment, oinnion, and adiite < onf emino ailaiis of state, makes its aiipeaiance in that aateieuate, wliifli is called public opinion In it what is absolutely uuivcisal, subst.mtiTe, and true is joined with its opposite, the indiqiendent, jpeculiai, and p.ntieiilai opinions of the mam This phase of exisleme is theietoie the actual coutiadictioii of itself, knowlodcfc is appeaiaufi-, the esM'utial exists diiectly as the unessential Adthtvni — Fuldie opinion is the unor!i:anizcd means through which what a jicojile wills and thinks is made known That which is ellcctive m the state must indeed he in organic 1 elation to it, and in the constitution this is the case But at all times pubhc opinion has heen a great power, and it is especially so in our time, when the prin- ciple of subjective fieedom has such importance and sig- nificance What now shall be confiimed is confirmed no longer through force, and hut little through use and wont, but mainly by insight and leasons 317 Public opmion contains theiefoie the eternal sub- stantive pxinuples of justice, the true eoutent oud result IHE SrATE