are capable of various focal adjustments. There are muscles 452 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
for directing them to the right and to the left, to the ground and to the sky. There is a curtain (the iiis) to regulate the quantity of light admitted. There is a gland to secrete, a tube to pour out, and a drain to carry off the lubricating fluid. There is a lid to wipe the surface, and there are lashes to give warning on the approach of foreign bodies. Now the contrast between these two kinds of visual organ is the contrast between all lower and higher types of structure. If we examine the framework employed to support the tissues, we find it consist- ing ill the Annelida (the common worm, for instance) of an extended series of rings. In the Myriapoda, which stand next above the Annelida, these rings are less numerous and more dense. In the higher Myriapoda they are united into a com- paratively few large and strong segments, whilst in the Insecta this condensation is carried still further. Speaking of analogous changes in the crustaceans, the lowest of which is constructed much as the centipede, and the highest of which (the crab) has nearly all its segments united, Professor Jones says — "And even the steps whereby we pass from the Annelidan to the Myriapod, and from thence to the Insect, the Scorpion, and the Spider, seem to be repeated as we thus review the progressive development of the class before us." Mark again, that these modifications of the exo-skeleton are completely paralleled by those of the endb-skeleton. The vertebra are numerous in fish, and in the opliidian reptiles. They are less numerous in the higher reptiles; less numerous still in the quadrupeds; fewest of all in man: and whilst their number is diminished, their forms and the functions of their appendages are varied, instead of being, as in the eel, nearly all alike. Thus, also, is it with locomotive organs. The spines of the echinus and the suckers of the star-fish are multitudinous. So likewise are the legs of the centipede. In the crastaceans we come down to fourteen, twelve, and ten; in the arachnidans and insects to eight and six; in the lower mammalia to four; and in man to two. The successive modifications of the di- gestive cavity are of analogous nature. Its lowest form is that GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 453 of a sack with but one opening. Next it is a tube with two openings, having different offices. And in higher creatures, this tube, instead of being made up of absorbents from end to end — that is, instead of being an aggregation of like parts — is modified into many unlike ones, having different structures adapted to the different stages into which the assimilative function is now divided. Even the classification under which man, as forming the genus Bimana, is distinguished from the most nearly related genus Quadrumana, is based on a dimi- nution in the number of organs that have similar foi-ms and duties.
Now just this same coalescence of like parts, and separation of unlike ones — just this same iacreasing subdivision of func- tions— takes place in the development of society. The earliest social organisms consist almost wholly of repetitions of one element. Every man is a warrior, hunter, fisherman, builder, agriculturist, toolmaker. Each portion of the community per- forms the same duties with every other portion; much as each portion of the polyp's body is alike stomach, skin, and lungs. Even the chiefs, in whom a tendency towards separateness of function first appears, still retain their similarity to the rest in economic respects. The next stage is distinguished by a segregation of these social units into a few distinct classes — soldiers, priests, and labourers. A further advance is seen in the sundering of these labourers into different castes, having special occupations, as amongst the Hindoos. And, without further illustration the reader will at once perceive, that from these inferior types of society up to oui' own complicated and more perfect one, the progress has ever been of the same nature. Wliilst he will also perceive that this coalescence of like parts, as seen in the concentration of particular manufacttu-es in particular districts, and this separation of agents having separate functions, as seen in the more and more minute division of labour, are still going on.
Significant of the alleged analogy is the further fact con' sequent upon the above, that the sensitiveness exhibited by 454 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
societies of low and high structure differs in degree, as does the sensitiveness of similarly-contrasted creatures. That peculiar faculty possessed by inferior organisms of hving on in each part after heing cut in pieces, is a manifest corollary to the other peculiarity just described; namely, that they consist of many repetitions of the same elements. The ability of the several portions into which a polyp has been divided, to grow into complete polyps, obviously implies that each portion con- tains all the organs needful to life; and each portion can be thus constituted only when those organs recur in every part of the original body. Conversely, the reason why any member of a more higlily-organized being cannot live when separated from the rest is, that it does not include aU the vital elements, but is dependent for its supplies of nutriment, nervous energy, oxygen, &c., upon the members from which it has been cut off. Of course, then, the earliest and latest forms of society, being similarly distinguished in structure, will be similarly distin- guished in susceptibihty of injury. Hence it happens that a tribe of savages may be divided and subdivided with little or no inconvenience to the several sections. Each of these contains every element wliich the whole did — is just as self-suf&cing, and quickly assumes the simple organization constituting an independent tribe. Hence, on the contrary, it happens, that in a community hke our own no pai't can be cut off or in- jured without all parts suffeiing. Annihilate the agency em- ployed in distributing commodities, and much of the rest would die before another distributing agency could be developed. Suddenly sever the manufacturing portion from the agricultural portion, and the one would expire outright, whilst the other would long hnger in grievous distress. This interdependence is daily shown in commercial changes. Let the factory hands be put on short time, and immediately the colonial produce markets of London and Liverpool are depressed. The shop- keeper is busy or otherwise, according to the amount of the wheat crop. And a potato-blight may ruin dealers in con- sols.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 455 Thus do we find, not only that the analogy hetween a society and a living creature is borne out to a degree quite unsuspected by those who commonly draw it, but also, that the same defi- nition of life applies to both. This union of many men into one community — tliis increasing mutual dependence of units which were originally independent — this gradual segregation of citizens into separate bodies, with reciprocally subservient functions — this formation of a whole, consisting of numerous essential parts — this growth of an organism, of which one por- tion cannot be injured without the rest feeling it — may all be generaUzed under the law of individuation. The development of society, as well as the development of man and the develop- ment of life generally, may be described as a tendency to in- dividuate— to become a thing. And rightly interpreted, the manifold forms of progress going on around us, are uniformly significant of this tendency.
Returning now to the point whence we set out, the fact that public interests and private ones are essentially in unison, can- not fail to be more vividly reahzed, when so vital a connection is found to subsist between society and its members. Though it would be dangerous to place implicit trust in conclusions founded upon the analogy just traced, yet harmonizing as they do with conclusions deducible from every-day experience, they unquestionably enforce these. When, after observing the re- actions entailed by breaches of equity, the citizen contemplates the relation in which he stands to the body pohtic — when he leams that it has a species of hfe, and conforms to the same laws of growth, organization, and sensibiUty that a being does — when he finds that one vitahty circulates through it and him, and that whilst social health, in a measure, depends upon the fulfilment of some function in which he takes part, his happiness depends upon the normal action of eVery organ in the social body — when he duly understands this, he must see that his own welfare and all men's welfare are inseparable, He must see that whatever produces a diseased state in one 456 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
part of the community, must inevitably inflict injury upon all other parts. He must see that his own life can become what it should be, only as fast as society becomes what it should be. In short, he must become impressed with the salutary truth, that no one can be perfectly free till all are free; no one can be perfectly moral till all are moral; no one can be perfectly happy till all are happy.
CHAPTER XXXI.
SUMMARY.
By bringing -within narrow compass the evidences that have been adduced in support of the Theory of Equity now before him, the reader will be aided in coming to a final judgment upon it.
At the head of these evidences stands the fact that, from whatever side we commence the investigation. Our paths alike converge towards the principle of which this theory is a deve- lopment. If we start with an a priori inquiry into the condi- tions under which alone the Divine Idea — greatest happiness — can be realized, we find that conformity to the law of equal freedom is the first of them (Chap. III.). If, turning to man's constitution, we consider the means provided for achieving greatest happiness, we quickly reason our way back to this same condition; seeing that these means cannot work out their end, unless the law of equal freedom is submitted to (Chap. IV.). If, pursuing the analysis a step further, we examine how subordination to the law of equal freedom is secured, we discover certain faculties by which that law is responded to (Chap. V.). If, again, we contemplate the phe- nomena of civilization, we perceive that the process of adapta- tion under which they may be generalized, can never cease until men have become instinctively obedient to this same law of equal freedom (Chap. II.). To all -which positive proofs may also be added the negative one, that to deny this law of equal freedom is to assert divers absurdities (Chap. VI.).
458 SUMMARY.
458 SUMMARY.
Further confirmation may be found in the circumstance that pre-existing theories, which are untenable as they stand, are yet absorbed, and the portion of truth contained in them assimi- lated, by the theory now proposed. Thus the production of the greatest happiness, though inappUcable as an immediate guide for men, is nevertlieless the true end of morality, re- garded from the Divine point of view; and as such, forms part of the present system (Chap. III.). The moral-sense principle, also, whilst misappUed by its propounders, is still based on fact; and, as was shown, harmonizes, when rightly interpreted, with what seem conflicting beliefs, and unites with them to produce a complete whole. Add to this, that the philosophy now con- tended for, includes, and affords a wider application to, Adam Smith's doctrine of sjTnpathy (p. 97); and lastly, that it gives the finishing development to Coleridge's "Idea of Life" The power which the proposed theory possesses of reducing the leading precepts of current morality to a scientific form, and of comprehending them, in compemy with sundry less acknowledged precepts, under one generalization, may also be quoted as additional evidence in its favour. Not as heretofore by considering whether, on the whole, manslaughter is produc- tive of unhappiness, or otherwise — not by inquiring if theft is, or is not, expedient — not by asking in the case of slavery what are its efi'ects on the common weal — not by any such complex and inexact processes, neither by the disputable decisions of un- aided moral sense, are we here guided; but by undeniable inferences from a proved first principle. Nor are only the chief rules of right conduct and the just ordering of the con- nubial and parental relationships thus determined for us; this same first principle indirectly gives distinct answers respecting SUMMARY. 459 SUMMARY. 459 the proper constitution of governments, their duties, and the limits to their action. Out of an endless labyrinth of con- fused debate concerning the poUcy of these or those public measures, it opens short and easily-discerned ways; and the conclusions it leads to are enforced, both generally, by an abundant experience of the fallacy of expediency decisions, and specially, by numerous arguments bearing on each succes- sive question. Underlying, therefore, as this first principle does, so wide a range of duty, and appUed as it is by a process of mental admeasurement nearly related to the geometrical — • namely, by ascertaining the equality or inequality of moral quantities (p. 110) — we may consider that a system of ethics synthetically developed from it, partakes of the character of an exact science; and as doing this possesses additional claims to our confidence.
Again, the injunctions of the moral law, as now interpreted, coincide with and anticipate those of political economy. Po- litical economy teaches that restrictions upon commerce are detrimental: the moral law denounces them as wrong (Chap. XXIII.). Pohtical economy tells us that loss is entailed by a forced trade with colonies: the moral law will not permit such a trade to be estabhshed (Chap. XXVII.). Political economy says it is good that speculators should be allowed to operate on the food-markets as they see well: the law of equal freedom (contrary to the current notion) holds them justified in doing this, and condemns all interference with them as inequitable. Penalties upon usury are proved by pohtical economy to be injurious: by the law of equal fi-eedom they are prohibited as involving an infringement of rights. Ac- cording to political economy, machinery is beneficial to the people, rather than hurtful to them: in unison with this the law of equal freedom forbids aU attempts to restrict its use. One of the settled conclusions of pohtical economy is, that 460 SUMMARY.
460 SUMMARY.
wages and prices cannot be artificially regulated: meanwhile it is an obvious inference from the law of equal freedom that no artificial regulation of them is morally permissible. We are taught by pohtical economy that to be least injurious taxa- tion must be direct: coincidently we find that direct taxation is the only kind of taxation against which the law of equal freedom does not unconditionally protest (p. 208). On sundry other questions, such as the hurtfulness of tamperings with currency, the futility of endeavours to permanently benefit one occupation at the expense of others, the impropriety of legis- lative interference with manufacturing processes, &c., the con- clusions of pohtical economy are similarly at one with the dictates of this law. And thus the laboured arguments of Adam Smith and his successors are forestalled, and for prac- tical purposes made needless, by the simplest deductions of fundamental moraUty: a fact which, perhaps, will not be duly realized until it is seen that the inferences of political economy are true, only because they are discoveries by a roundabout pro- cess of what the moral law commands.
Moreover, the proposed theory includes a pliilosophy of civi- lization. WHulst in its ethical aspect it ignores evil, yet in its psychological aspect it shows how evil disappears. Whilst, as an abstract statement of what conduct should he, it assumes human perfection— is, in fact, the law of that perfection— yet, as a rationale of moral phenomena, it explains why conduct is becoming what it should be, and why the process through which humanity has passed was necessary.
Thus we saw that the possession by the aboriginal man of a constitution enabling him to appreciate and act up to the principles of pure rectitude would have been detrimental, and indeed fatal (p. 410). We saw that in accordance with the law of adaptation, the faculties responding to those piinciples began to unfold as soon as the conditions of existence called SUMMARY. 461 for them. From time to time it has been shown that the leading incidents of progress indicate the continued develop- ment of these faculties. That supremacy of them must precede the reahzation of the perfect state, has been implied in nume- rous places. And the influence by which their ultimate su- premacy is ensured has been pointed out (Chap. II.).
So that though one side of the proposed theoiy, in exhibiting the conditions under wliich alone the Divine Idea may be reaUzed, overlooks the existing defects of mankind; the other side, in exhibiting the mental properties requisite for fulfilling these conditions, shows what civilization essentially is; why it was needful; and explains for us its leading traits.
Finally, there is the fact lately alluded to, that moral truth, as now interpreted, proves to be a development of physiological truth; for the so-called moral law is in reahty the law of com- plete life. As more than once pointed out, a total cessation in the exercise of faculties is death; whatever partially prevents their exercise, produces pain or partial death; and only when activity is permitted to all of them, does hfe become perfect. Liberty to exercise the faculties being thus the first condition of life, and the extension of that Hberty to the furthest point possible being the condition of tlie highest hfe possible, it fol- lows that the liberty of each, limited only by the hke Hberty of all, is the condition of complete life as apphed to mankind at large.
Nor is this true of mankind in their individual capacities only: it is equally true of them in their corporate capacity; seeing that the vitality which a community exhibits is high or low according as this condition is or is not fulfilled. For, as the reader no doubt observed in the course of our late ana- lysis, those superior types of social organization, characterized by the mutual dependence of their respective parts, are possible only in as far as their respective parts can confide in each other; 462 SUMMARY.
that is, only in as far as men behave justly to their fellows; that is, only in as far as they obey the law of equal freedom.
Hence, broadly generalizing, as it does, the prerequisites of existence, both personal and social — being on the one hand the law under which each citizen may attain complete hfe, and on the other hand being, not figuratively, but literally, the vital law of the social organism — being the law under which perfect individuation, both of man and of society, is achieved — being, therefore, the law of that state towards wliich creation tends — ■ the law of equal freedom may properly be considered as a law of nature.
Having now briefly reviewed the arguments — having called to mind that our first principle is anived at by several inde- pendent methods of inquiry — that it unfolds into a system, uniting in one consistent whole, theories, some of which seem conflicting, and others unrelated — that it not only gives a scien- tific derivation to the leading precepts of morality, but includes them along with the laws of state-duty under one generalization — that it utters injunctions coinciding with those of poUtical economy — that civilization is explicable as the evolution of a being capable of conforming to it — that, as the law of complete life, it is Unked with those physical laws of which life is the highest product — and lastly, that it possesses such multipUed relationships, because it underhes the manifestations of life — having called to mind these things, the reader will perhaps find the rays of evidence thus brought to a focus, sufficient to dissi- pate the doubts that may hitherto have lingered with him.
CHAPTER XXXII.
CONCLUSION.
A FEW words are needful respecting the attitude to be assumed towards the doctrines that have heen enunciated. Probahly many wiU eagerly search out excuses for disregarding the restraints set up by the moral law as herein developed. The old Tiabit of faUing back upon considerations of expediency — a habit which men followed long before it was apotheosized by Paley — wiU still have influence. Although it has been shown that the system of deciding upon conduct by direct calculation of results is a fallacious one — although the plea that, however proper certain rules of action may be, occasional exceptions axe necessary, has been found hollow (Lemma II.), yet we may anticipate further apologies for disobedience, on the score of " poHcy." Amongst other reasons for claiming latitude, it will very Hkely be urged that, whereas the perfect moral code is confessedly beyond the fulfilment of imperfect men, some other code is needful for our present guidance. Not what is theo- retically right, but what is the best course practicable under existing circumstances, wiU probably be insisted on as the thing to be discovered. Some again may argue, that which- ever hue of conduct produces the greatest benefit as matters stand, if noX. positively right, is still relatively so; and is, therefore, for the time being, as obligatory as the abstract law itself. Or it will perhaps be said, that if, with human nature what it now is, a sudden re- arrangement of society upon the principles 464 CONCLDSION.
of pure equity would produce disastrous results, it follows that, until perfection is reached, some discretion must be used in de- ciding how far these principles shall be carried out. And thus may we expect to have expediency re- asserted as at least the temporary law, if not the ultimate one. Let us examine these positions in detail.
To say that the imperfect man requires a moral code which recognises his imperfection and allows for it, seems at first sight reasonable. But it is not really so. Wherever such a code differs fi'om the perfect code, it must so differ in being le^s stringent; for as it is argued that the perfect code requires so modifying as to become possible of fulfilment by existing men, the modification must consist in omitting its hardest injunctions. So that instead of saying — " Do not transgress at all," it is proposed, in consideration of our weakness, to say — " Trans- gress only in such and such cases." Stated thus, the propo- sition almost condemns itself; seeing that it makes morality countenance acts which are confessedly immoral.
Passing by this, however, suppose we inquire what advantage is promised by so lowering the standard of conduct. Can it be supposed that men will on the whole come nearer to a full dis- charge of duty when the most difficult part of this duty is not insisted on? Hardly: for whilst performance so commonly falls below its aim, to bring down its aim to the level of possibility, must be to make performance fall below possibility. Is it that any evil will result from endeavouiiug after a morality of which we are as yet but partially capable? No; on the contrary, it is only by pei-petual aspiration after what has been hitherto be- yond our reach, that advance is made. And where is the need for any such modification? Whatever inability exists in us, will of necessity assert itself; and in actual life our code will be virtually lowered in proportion to that inability. If men cannot yet entirely obey the law, why, they cannot, and there is an end CONCLUSION. 465 CONCLUSION. 465 of the matter; but it does not follow that we ought therefore to stereotype their incompetency, by specifying how much is possible to them and how much is not. Nor, indeed, could we do this were it desirable. Only by experiment is it to be decided in how far each individual can conform; and the de- gree of conformity achievable by one is not the same as that achievable by others, so that one specification would not answer for all. Moreover, could an average be struck, it would apply only to the time being; and would be inapplicable to the time immediately succeeding. Hence a system of morals which shall recognise man's present imperfections and allow for them, cannot be devised; and would be useless if it could be de- vised.
Those who, by way of excusing a little politic disobedience, allege their anxiety to be practical, wiU do well to weigh their words a little. By " practical," is described some mode of action productive of benefit; and a plan which is specially so designated, as contrasted with others, is one assumed to be, on the whole, more beneficial than such others. Now this that we call the moral law is simply a statement of the conditions of beneficial action. Originating in the primary necessities of things, it is the development of these into a series of limitations within which all conduct conducive to the greatest happiness must be confined. To overstep such limitations is to disregard these necessities of things — to fight against the constitution of nature. In other words, to plead the desire of being practical, as a reason for transgressing the moral law, is to assume that in the pursuit of benefit we must break through the bounds within which only benefit is obtainable.
"What an insane notion is this that we can advantageously de- vise, and arrange, and alter, in ignorance of the inherent condi- tions of success; or that knowing these conditions we may slight them! In the field and the workshop we show greater wisdom. We have learnt to respect the properties of the substances with H H 466 CONCLUSION.