stimulations and checks of all kinds, furthering quick and balanced adjustments of conduct. Finally there arises a far swifter propagation of stimuli serving to co-ordinate social actions, political, military, commercial, etc. Beginning with the semaphore-telegraph, which, re- minding us in general principle of the signal-fires of savages, differed by its ability to convey from station to station not single vague ideas only, but numerous, complex, and distinct ideas, we end with the electric-telegraph, immeasur- ably more rapid, through which go quite definite messages, infinite in variety and of every degree of complexity. And in place of a few such semaphore-telegraphs, transmitting^ chiefly for governmental purposes, impulses in a few direc- tions, there has come a multiplicity of lines of instant com- THE fiSGUIATING SYSTEM. 657 inanication in all directions^ subserving aU purposes. More- over^ by the agency of tHese latest intemuncial stmctaresj the social organism, thongh discrete, has acquired a prompt- ness of co-ordination equal to, and indeed exceeding, the promptness of co-ordination in concrete organisms. It was before pointed out (§ 221) that social units, though forming a discontinuooB aggregate, achieve by language a traMmis- sion of impulses which, in individual aggregates, is achieved by nerves. But now, utilizing the molecular continuity of wires, the impulses are conveyed throughout the body politic much faster than they would be were it a concrete living whole. Including times occupied by taking messages to and from the offices in each place, any citizen in Edinburgh may give motion to any citizen in London, in less than one- fonrth the time a nervous discharge would take to pass from one to the other, were they joined by living tissue. Nor should we omit the fact that parallelism in the requirements has caused something like parallelism in the arrangements of the intemuncial lines. From great social centres diverge many large clusters of wires, from which, as they get further away, diverge at intervals minor clusters, and these presently give off re-diverging clusters; just as main bundles of nerves on their way towards the periphery, from time to time emit lateral bundles, and these again others. Moreover, the distribution presents the analogy that near chief centres these great clusters of intemuncial lines go bide by side with the main channels of conmiunication — rail- ways and roads-'but frequently part from these as they ramify; in the same way that in the central parts of a ver- tebrate animal, nerve-trunks habitually accompany arteries, while towards the periphery the proximity of nerves and arteries is not maintained: the only constant association being also similar in the two cases; for the one telegraph wire which accompanies the railway system throughout every ramification, is the wire which checks and excites its traffic, as the one nerve which everywhere accompanies aa 558 THE IHDUCmOBS <» aocroLOGT.
artery is tlie vaso-motor nerre regulating the circalation in it. Once more, it is a noteworthy &ct that in both cases insolation characterizes the intemnncial lines. Utterly on- like as are the molecular wayes conveyed, it is needfnl in both cases that they should be limited to the channels pro- Tided. Though in the aerial telegraph-wires insulation is otherwise effected, in under-ground wires it is effected in a way analogous to that seen in nerve-fibres. Many wires united in a bundle are separated from one another by sheaths of non-conducting substance; as the nerve-fibres that run side by side in the same trunk, are separated from one another by their respective medullary sheaths.
The general result, then, is that in societies, as in living bodies, the increasing mutual dependence of parts, implying an increasingly-efficient regulating system, therefore implies not only developed regulating centres, but also means by which the influences of such centres may be propagated. And we see that as, under one of its aspects, organic evo- lution shows us more and more efficient intemuncial appli- ances subserving regulation, so, too, does social evolution.
§ 254. One more remarkable and important parallelism has to be set forth. In both kinds of organisms the regu- lating system, during evolution, divides into two sys- tems, to which is finally added a third partially-independent system; and the differentiations of these systems have common causes in the two cases.
The general law of organization, abundantly illustrated in foregoing chapters, is that distinct duties entail distinct structures; that from the strongest functional contrasts come the greatest structural differences; and that within each of the leading systems of organs first divided from one another in conformity with this principle, secondary divi- sions arise in conformity with the same principle. The im- plication is, then, that if in an organism, individual or social, the function of regulation falls into two divisions THE fiXOULATINO ST8TEM. 559 tkat are widely unlike, the regulating apparatus will differen- tiate into correspondingly-anlike parts carrying on their unlike functions in great measure independently. This we shall find that it does.
The fundamental division in a developed animal, we have seen to be that between the outer system of organs which deal with the environment and the inner system of organs which carry on sustentation. For efficient mutual aid it is requisite not only that the actions of these inner and outer systems, considered as wholes, shall be co-ordinated; but also that each system shall have the actions of its several parts co-ordinated with one another. Prey can be caught or enemies escaped, only if the bones and muscles of each limb work together properly — only if all the. limbs effectually co-operate — only if they jointly adjust their motions to the tactual, visual, and auditory impres- sions; and to combine these many actions of the various sensory and motor agents, there must be a nervous system that is large and complex in proportion as the actions combined are powerful, multiplied, and involved. Like in principle, though much less elaborate, is the combination required among the actions of the sustaining structures. If the masticated food is not swallowed when thrust to the entrance of the gullet, digestion cannot begin; if when food is in the stomach contractions but no secretions take place, or if the pouring out of gastric juices is not accompanied by due rhythmical movements, digestion is arrested; if the great appended glands send into the intestines not enough of their respective products, or send them at wrong times, or in wrong proportions, digestion is left imperfect; and so with the many minor simultaneous and successive pro- cesses which go to make up the general function. Hence there must be some nervous structure which, by its inter- nuncial excitations and inhibitions, shall maintain the co- ordination. Now observe how widely unlike are the two kinds of co-ordination to be secured. The external 560 TBB INDUCTIONS Of SOCIOliOGT.
actions must be qnick in their changes. Swift motions, sndden variations of direction^ instant stoppages, are need- ful. Musoalar contractions mast be exactly adjusted to preserve the balance^ achieve the leap^ evade the swoop. Moreover^ involved combinations are implied; for the forces to be simultaneously dealt with are many and various. Again^ the involved combinations^ changing from moment to moment^ rarely recur; because the circumstances are rarely twice alike. And once more, not the needs of the moment only have to be met, but also the needs of a future more or less distant. Nothing of the kind holds with the internal co-ordinations. The same series of processes has to be gone through after every meal — ^varying some- what with the quantity of food, with its quality, and with the degree to which it has been masticated. No quick, special, and exact adaptations are required; but only a general proportion and tolerable order among actions which are not precise in their beginnings, amounts, or endings. Hence for the sustaining organs there arises a regulating apparatus of a strongly contrasted character, which event- ually becomes substantially separate. The sympathetic sys- tem of nerves, or " nervous system of organic life," as it is otherwise called, whether or not originally derived from the cerebro-spinal system, is, in developed vertebrates, practi- cally independent. Though perpetually influenced by the higher system which, working the muscular structures, causes the chief expenditure, and though in its turn influ- encing this higher system, the two carry on their functions apart: tbey affect one another chiefly by general demands and general checks. Only over the heart and lungs, which are indispensable co-operators with both the sustain- ing organs and the expending organs, do we find that the superior and inferior nervous systems exercise a divided control. The heart, excited by the cerebro-spinal system in proportion to the supply of blood required for external action, is also excited by the sympathetic when a meal THS SSaUTATIKQ 8T8TEM. 561 lias made a supply of blood needful for digestion; and tbe longs which (because their expansion has to be efEected partly by thoracic muscles belonging to the outer system of organs) largely depend for their movements on cerebro- spinal nerves, are nevertheless also excited by the sympa- thetic when the alimentary org^s are at work. And here, as showing the tendency there is for all these comparatively- constant vital processes to fall under a nervous control un- like that which directs the ever-varying outer processes, it may be remarked that such influences as the cerebro-spinal system exerts upon the heart and lungs, differ greatly from its higher directive actions — are mainly reflex and uncon-i scions. Volition &ils to modify the heart's pulsations; and though an act of will may temporarily increase or decrease respiration, yet the average respiratory movements are not thus changeable, but during waking and sleeping are auto- matically determined. To which facts let me add thai the broad contrast here illustrated in the highest or verte- brate type, is also illustrated in the higher members of the annulose type. Insects, too, have visceral nervous systems substantially distinguished from the nervous systems which co-ordinate outer actions. And thus we are shown that separation of the two functionally-contrasted regulating systems in animals, is a concomitant of greater evolution.
A parallel contrast of duties produces a parallel differen- tiation of structures during the evolution of social organ- isms. Single in low societies as in low animals, the regu- lating system in high societies as in high animals becomes divided into two systems, which, though they perpetually affect one another, carry on their respective controls with substantial independence. Observe the like causes for these like effects. Success in conflicts with other societies implies quickness, combination, and special adjustment to ever-varying circumstances. Information of an enemy's movements must be swiftly conveyed; forces must be rapidly drafted to particular spots; supplies fit in kinds and quanti- 562 THE INDUCTIONS OF 8OCIOL0CFT.
ties miifit be provided; military manoenyres most be bar- monized; and to these ends there most be a centralised agency that is instantly obeyed. Quite otherwise is it with the stmctares carrying on snstentation. Though the actions of these have to be somewhat yaried npon occa- sion^ especially to meet war-demands^ yet their general action is comparatiyely xmif orm. The seyeral kinds of food raised haye to meet a consumption that changes within moderate limits only; for clothing the demands are tolerably constant, and alter in their proportions not suddenly but slowly; and so with commodities of less necessary kinds: rapidity, speciality, and exactness, do not characterize the required co-ordination. Hence a place for another kind of regulating system. Such a system we shall find eyolyes as the sustaining system itself eyolyes. Let ns note its progress. In early stages the occupations are often such as to prevent division between the control of defensive actions and the control of sustaining actions, because the two are closely allied. Among the Mandans the families joined in hunting and equally divided the spoil; showing us that the war with beasts carried on for joint benefit was so nearly allied to the war with men carried on for joint benefit, that they both remained public affairs. Similarly among the Gomanches, the guarding of a tribe's cattle is carried on in the same manner as military guarding might be; and because the community of individual interests in this protection of the cattle from enemies, is like the community of interests in personal protection, unify in the two kinds of government continues. Moreover in simple tribes that are under any kind of headship, what authority exists is unlimited in range, and includes industrial actions as well as others. If there are merely wives for slaves, or if there is a slave-class, the dominant individuals who carry on outer attack and defence, also direct in person what labour is per- formed; and where a chief having considerable power haa arisen, he not only leads in war but orders the daily aotivi- THB BBOULATINa StBTStt. 568 ties during peace. The Gonds^ the Bhils^ the Nagas^ the Mishmis^ the E^almuoks^ and many other simple tribes^ show us this identity of the political and industrial goyemments. A partial adyance^ leading to some distinction^ does not sepa- rate the two in a definite way* Thus among the Kukis the rajiJi claims and regulates work^ superintends village re- movalSy and apportions the land each family has to clear on a new site; among the Santals the head man partially con- trols the people's labour; and among the Ehonds he acts as chief merchant. In Polynesia we find like facts. The New Zealand chiefs superintend agricultural and building opera- tions; the Sandwich Islanders have a market^ in which ''the price is regulated by the chief;'' trade in Tonga also ''is evidently under their [the chiefs'] supervision; " and the Kadagan chiefs "settle the price of rice." So again in Celebes^ the days for working in the plantations are decided by the political agency^ and the people go at beat of gong; so again in East Africa^ the times of sowing and har- vest depend on the chiefs willj and among the Inland Negroes the "market is arranged accordiug to the direc-^ tions of the chiefs; " so again in some parts of Ancient America^ as San Salvador^ where the cazique directed the plantings; and so again in some parts of America at the present time. Those who trade with the Mundrucus " have to distribute their wares amongst the minor chiefs^" and then wait some months " for repayment in produce; " and the Patagonians could not sell any of their arms or clothing to Wilkes's party without asking the chiefs permission. In other societies^ and especially in those which are consider- ably developed, we find this union of political and industrial rule becoming modified: the agency, otherwise the same, is doubled. Thus "among the Sakarran Dyaks there is a trading chief in addition to the ordinary chief; " among the Dahomans there is a commercial chief in Whydah; and there are industrial chiefs in Fiji, where, in other respects, social organization is considerably advanced. At a later 564 THE INDUCTIONS OV SOCIOLOOT.
stage the commercial cliief passes into the government officer exercising stringent supervision. In Ancient Groate- mala a state-functionary fixed the prices in the markets; and in Mexico^ agents of the state saw that lands did not remain xmciiltivated. Facts of this kind introduce ns to ihe stages passed through by European societies. Up to the 10th century each domain in France had its bond, or only partially -free^ workmen and artizans, directed by the seigneur and paid by him in meals and goods; between the 11th and 14th centuries the feudal superiors, ecclesi- astical or lay, regulated production and distribution to sucli extent that industrial and commercial licences had to be par« chased from them; in the subsequent monarchical stage, it was a legal maxim that ^' the right to labour is a royal right which the prince may sell and subjects can buy''; and on- wards to the time of the Bevolution, the country swarmed with officials who.authorized occupations, dictated processes, examined products: since which times state-control, though remaining considerable, has greatly diminished, and the adjustments of industry to its needs have been other- wise effected. Still better does our own history show ns this progressive difEerentiation. In the Old English period the heads of guilds were identical with the local political heads— ealdormen, wick-, port-, or burgh-reeves; and the guild was itself in part a political body. Purchases and bar- gains had to be made in presence of officials; agricultural and manufacturing processes were dictated by law. Dictations of kindred kind, though decreasing, continued to late times. Down to the 16th century there were metropolitan and local councils, politically authorized, which determined prices, fixed wages, etc. But during subsequent generations, restrictions and bounties disappeared; usury laws were abolished; liberty of commercial combination increased.
And now if, with those early stages in which the rudi- mentary industrial organization is ruled by the chief, and with those intermediate stages in which, as it develops, it J gets a partially-separate political control^ we contrast a late stage like our own^ characterized by an industrial organiza- tion that has become predominant^ we find that this has evolved for itself a substantially-independent control. There is now no fixing of prices by the State^ no prescribing of methods. Subject to but slight hindrance from a few licences, citizens adopt what occupations they please; buy and sell where they please. The amounts grown and manu* factured, imported and exported, are unregulated by laws; improvements are not enforced nor bad processes legis- latively interdicted; but men, carrying on their businesses as they think best, are simply subject to the legal restraints that they shall fulfil their contracts and not aggress upou their neighbours. Under what system, then, are their in- dustrial - activities adjusted to the requirements f Under an intemuncial system through which the various indus- trial structures receive from one another stimuli or checks caused by rises or falls in the consumptions of their re- spective products; and through which they jointly receive a stimulus when there is suddenly an extra consumption for war-purposes. Markets in the chief towns, where bar- gaining settles the prices of grain and cattle, of cottons and woollens, of metals and coal, show men the vaiying relations of supply and demand; and the reports of their transactions, diffused by the press, prompt each loca- lity to increase or decrease of its special function. More- over, while the several districts have their activities thus partially regulated by their local centres of business, the metropolis, where all these districts are represented by houses and agencies, has its central markets and its ex- change, in which is efEected such general averag^g of the respective demands of all kinds, present and future, as keeps a due balance among the activities of the several in- dustries. That is to say, there has arisen, in addition to the political*regulating system, an industrial regulating system which carries on its co-ordinating function independently — ^a separate plexus of connected ganglia.
666 THX INDnCTIONS OF SOCIOLOOT.
As aboTe hinted, yet a third regnlating system, partiaUy distinguishable from the others, arises in both cases. For the prompt adjustment of functions to needs, supplies of Hbe required consumable matters must be rapidly drafted to Hbe places where activities are set up. If an organ in the indi- vidual body or in the body politic, suddenly called into great action, could get materials for its nutrition or its secretion, or both, only through the ordinary quiet flow of the distributing currents, its enhanced action would soon flag. That it may continue responding to the increased demand, there must be an extra influx of the materials used in its actions — it must have credit in advance of function discharged. In the individual organism this end is achieved by the vaso-motor nervous system. The fibres of this ramify everywhere along with the arteries, which they en- large or contract in conformity with stimuli sent along them. The general law, as discovered by Ludwig and Lov&n, is that when by the nerves of sensation there is sent inwards that impression which accompanies the activity of a part, there is reflected back to the part, along its vaso- motor nerves, an influence by which its minute arteries are suddenly dilated; and at the same time, through the vasomotor nerves going to all inactive parts, there is sent an influence which slightly constricts the arteries supplying them: thus diminishing the flow of blood where it is not wanted, that the flow may be increased where it is wanted. In the social organism, or rather in such a developed social organism as our own in modem times, this kind of regulation is efEected by the system of banks and associated financial bodies which lend out capital. When a local industry, called into unusual activity by increased consumption of its products, makes demands first of all on local banks, these, in response to the impressions caused by the rising activity conspicuous around them, open more freely those channels for capital which they command; and presently, with further rise of prosperity, the impression . THX RXOULATING SYSTEM. 667 propagated to the financial oentres in London produces an extension of the local credit, so that there takes place a dilatation of the in-flowing streams of men and commodi- ties. While, at the same time, to meet this local need for capital, yarions industries elsewhere, not thus excited, and therefore not able to offer such good interest, get diminished supplies: some constriction of the circulation through them takes place. This third regulating system, observe, Taso-motor in the one case and monetary in the other, is substantially independent. Evidence exists that there are local vaso-motor centres possessing local control, as there are local monetary centres; and though there seems to be in each case a chief centre, difficult to distinguish amid the other regulating structures with which it is entangled, yet it is functionally separate. Though it may be bound up with the chief regulating system by which outer actions are controlled, it is not subject to it. Volition in the one case cannot alter these local supplies of blood; and legislation in the other, ceasing to make the mis- chievous perturbations it once did in the movement of capital, now leaves it almost entirely alone: even the State, with the structures under its direct control, standing to the financial corporations in the position of a customer, just as the brain and limbs do to the vaso-motor centres. Nor does it form part of that second regulating system which controls the organs carrying on sustentation, individual or social. The viscera get blood only by permission of these nerves commanding their arteries, and if the outer organs are greatly exerted, the supply is shut ofE from the inner organs; and similarly the industrial system, with that centralized apparatus which balances its actions, cannot of itself draft capital here or there, but does this indirectly only through the impressions yielded by it to Lombard-street.