manner; and I here append an instance since pointed oat to me:— *' The proTuioe of Samotigia abounds ia woods and foresta, in which liombk •ii;hta may occaaioiially be witaeased; for in them there dwell a cooaidenkk namber of idolators, who cherish, as a kind of household gods, a species d reptile, which has four short feet like a lizard, with a black flat Iwdj, w^ exceeding three palms in length. These animals are called 'giroitea,' aod oa certain days are allowed to crawl abont the hooae in search of the food vbii is placed for them. They are looked upon wiih griAt aaperstiiioD bf tiis whole family, until the time when, haying satisfied tbeir hunger, thej itXam to their own place.'' — Uerberitein, Ees MoscovU, (Mgor's tFan&latioo).
LotuS'Worship. — I have not included in the chapter on plant- worship, the case of the Iotas; becaase I did not wish to eodanger the general argument by a donbtfal support The erideoce H however, saffieient to raise the suspicion tliat lotos -worship arose in the same way as did the worship of the soma.
Clearly some plant, or the product of some plant, haWog ti»t name, was eaten as a nervous stimulant, producing a state of bli^ f ul indifference; though among sundry plants which have g(fos ^/ the name, it is not decided which was the one. Farther, tfaere was in the East the belief in a divinity residiog in a water-plant kno«it as the lotus; and at the present time in Thibet, warship o! this divinity in the lotus is the dominant religion. As is stated in Mr. Wilson's Abode of Snow, the daily and hourly prayer is '*0m mani padme hauu," which literally rendered means, " O God! the jefftj in the lotus. Amon." The word mani^ here translated jewel, an^ meaning more generally a precious thing, is variously applJ^^ ^ sacred objects — to the long stone tumuli, to the prayer-mills, etc; so that, reading through the figurative expression to the origii^ thought, it would seem to be, *' O God! the precious or sacred power in the lotus." Difficulties in explaining the ancient legend about lotus-eating, as well as this existing superstition, nrlse Irom the fact that the plant now known as the lotus, has no toxic qu^l^- ties. There is, however, a possible solution. The lotus has a sveel root; and at the present time in Cashmere, this root is hooked np from the bottoms of the lakes and used as food. But a sweet root contains fermentable matters — both the saccharine and the f^J' laceous: even now alcohol is made from beetroot. Possibly, then, in early times the juice and starch of the lotus-root were usedjo^ as the sap of the pahn is in some places used still, for making i^ ilitoxicating beverage; and the beliefs concerning the lotos u'f liave sorvived in times when thu beverage was replaced by others more easily prodaced. The fact that m the early days of Soma- worship the jaice was fermented, bat that in later days it was not (other kmds of intoxicating; liquors having come into use), yields additional reason for thinking so. Be this as it may, however, we have this evidence: — some plant yielding a product causing a pleasur- able mental state, was identical in name with a plant regarded as sacred because of an indwelling god.
It is, indeed, alleged that in Egypt the lotus was sacred as a symbol of the Nile, and that the Indian lotus stood in like relation to the Ganges. I notice this interpretation for the purpose of re- marking that I do not believe any early usage ever arose through symbolization. This is one of the many erroneous interpretations which arise by ascribing developed ideas to undeveloped minds. No one who, instead of fancying how primitive usages could have arisen, observes how tbey do arise, will believe that the primitive man ever deliberately adopted a symbol, or ever even conceived of a symbol as such. All symbolic actions are modifications of actions which originally had practical ends — were not invented but grew. The case of mutilations sufficiently exemplifies the process.
Men in the Sky. — Already the Esquimaux have furnished m the text, an illustration of the primitive belief that stars, etc., were originally men and animals who lived on the Earth (§ 190). In the above-cited work of Dr. Rink, I find a circumstantial account of their ideas concerning the physical connexion between the upper and lower worlds, and the routes joining them: — " The earth, with the sea nipported by it, rests upon pillars, and covers an nDder world, accessible bv various eutranoes frum the sea, as well as from jnountaia clefts. Above the earth an upper wurld is found, bejond which the bine sky, being of a solid consistence, vaults itself like au outer shell, aud. aa some say, revolves around some high mouotaiu-top in the far north. The upper wurld exhibits a real land with mountains, valleys, and lakes. After death, human souls either go to the upper or to the uuder world. The latter is decidedly to be preferred, as being warm and rich in fuod. There are the dwellings of the happy dead called arsiaaut — viz,, thuse wbo live in abundance. On the contrary, those who go to the upiiei wurid will suffer fiom cold and famine; and these are called arsaarttU, or ball- players, on accuuut of their playing at ball with a walrus head, which gives rise to the aurora borvalis, or northern lights. Further, the upper woild must be considered a continuation of the earth in the direction of height, although those individuals, or at least those souls tem])orariIy delivered from the body, that aie said to have visiced it, for the most part passed through the air. The upper world, it would seeiQ, may be considered identical with the mono tain round the top of which the vaulted sky is for ever circling— the proper road leading tu it from the foot of the niouutain upwards beiog itself either too far off or too steep. One of the tales aUo meutious a man going in his kayak [l>oat] to the border of the ocean, where the sky comes down to meet ir,"— pp. 87- S.
*'The upper world is also inhabited by several rulers besides the souIh of the deceased. Among these are the owners or inhabitants of cvkstiol budieS| ytlio, baviog once been men, were removed in their lifetime from the tasih, bat are etiU attached to it in different waya, and pay occasional riaits to iL They have aluo been representei as the celestial bjdies themselves, and not their inae •mly, the tales mentioaing them iti both ways. The owner of the m >oa oi^inaily was a man, called Aning^at, and the iitua of the sao was his Slitter. • • • rhe erdlaveersisaok — vis., the eatrAil-seiser — is a woman r^ silling oil the way to the moon, who takes out the eutrnils of every jpcma whom aha can tempt to laughter. The noffttU, or the three stars m Orioo'i belt, ware mm who were lost in going out to hunt on the ice.*' — ^pp. 48-9.
There coald scarcely be more specific evidence that the per- soaalization of heavenly bodies has resulted from the supposed translation of terrestrial beings — ^msn and animals — ^to the sky. Here we have the upper world regarded as physically coatinnoos with the lower world and like it in character; and the migration to it after death parallels those migrations to distant parts of the Earth*s surface after death, which primitive races in general show as. While we have no evidence of nature-worship, we have clear en- dence of identification of celestial bodies with traditional persons. That is to say, personalization of the heavenly bodies precedes worship of them, instead of succeeding it, as mythologists allege. Joining these facts with those given in the text, the origio of names for constellations and the genesis of astrology, are made, I think, bufficiently clear.
Star- Gods. — While the proofs of these pages are ander cor- rection^ I am enabled to add an important piece of evidence, har- Dionizing with the above, and supporting sundry of the eonelasioQS drawn in the text. It is furnished by a Babylonian ioscription (ill. RawL 53, No. 2, lines 36, etc.), which, as translated by ProL Schrader, runs thus: — '* The star Venus at sunrise is Ishtar among the god% The star Venus at sunset is Baaltis among the gods."
We have thus another case of multiple personality in a heavenly body, analogous to the cases of the Sun and Moon before pointed out, but differing in definiteness. For whereas, before, the belief in two or more personalities was inferred, we here have it directly stated. This belief, inexplicable on any current theory, we see to be perfectly explicable as a result of birth-naming.
Other- Worlds. — The speculation ventured in § lid, that conqnest of one race by another introduces beliefs in different other worlds, to which the superior and the inferior go, is supported by this passage:^ ** If there are strong caste-distinctions, the souls of the noble and chief mea are said to go to a better country than those of the rest. It is for this reason that in Cochin China, common p«N)ple do not entertain the sonls of their fnen<li on the same day or the A1I-S< nls' feast as that on whioh the nol^ty )mn in' t vited theirs; because otiienrise those aoals whea retarDiug would hare their former servants to cany the gifts receired." — BasHan, Vergl. PaychologU^ 89.
Mountain Deities. — In § 114, I suggested two ways In which ancestor- worship originates beliefs in godbi who reside on the highest peaks and have access to the heavens. Burial of the dead on mountain crags, I indicated as one origin; and the occupation of mountain strong-holds by conquering races, as probably another origin. I have since met with verifications of both suggestions.
The first of them is contained in the recently-published Travels in the Philippines^ by F. Jagor. Showing that before the Spanish set- tlement the people had the ordinary ideas and customs of ancestor- worshippers, he describes the sacred burial caves; and illustrates the survival of the religious awe with which these cares were origin- ally regarded. He visited some of these caves at Nipa-Nipa; and says (p. 259) that '* the numerous coffins, implements, arms, and trinkets, protected by superstitious terrors, continued to be undis- turbed for centuries. No boat ventured to cross over without the observance of a religious ceremony, derived from heathen times, to propitiate the spirits of the caverns, who were believed to punish the omission of it with storm and shipwreck." By way of proof, he tells us that the boatmen who went with the pastor of Basey to the cave to get remains, regarded a thunderstorm which broke on their way back, as *^ a pnni.*^hment for their outrsge." After tkus exhibiting the popular beliefs as they still exist, notwithstanding Catholic teaching, he proves, fi om early writers, what these beliefs originally were. It appears that men when dying often chose their burial-places; and he quotes one authority to the effect that '^ those who were of note ^ sometimes had their cofiQns deposited ^' on an elevated place or rock on the bank of a river, where they might be venerated by the pious." He says that Th^venot describes them as worshipping ^' those of their ancestors who had most distinguished themselves by courage and genius, whom they regarded as deities. * * * Even the aged died under this conceit, choosing particular places, such as one on the island of Leyte, which allowed of their being interred at the edge of the sea, in order that the mariners who crossed over might acknowledge them as deities, and pay them respect.*' And he also quotes Gemelli Careri, who says that ^'the oldest of them chose some remarkable spot in the mountains, and particularly on headlunds projecting into the sea, in order to be worshipped by the sailors." This combination of facts is, I think^ amply significant. We have distinguished persons becoming gods after death; we see them providing for this apotheosis, and in a sense demanding worship; we fiud them choosing high and conspicuous burial-places to facilitate the worship; we see that ap- proach to burial-places is regarded as sacrilege; and we see that the ghosts of the dead hare become deified to the exteat that they are supposed to rent their anger in thunderstorms. Here are ^ the elements from which might result a Philippine SinaL The instance to which I refer as showing that an invading race, seizing a high stronghold, may give origin to a celestial hierardij, whose residence is a mountain top, I tadke from Bancroft's yersioQ of the Qaich6 legend. It begins with a time when as jet there was no San (possibly a fragment of some still more ancient storj broaght southwards by dwellers in the Arctic regions); and in the first place narrates a migration ui search of the Sun.
** So the foar mea aad their people set oat for Talaa-Zaira, otherwise olkd the Sovea-oaves or SeFen-ravlaes, aad there they received gods^ each man ai head of a familT, a god; thoagh ioasoiach as the foarth mnji, Iqi- Baikal, had n.> ohU'lrea and foaaded ao faoiily, his god is aot asadly taken into aceooax. • • • Maay other trials also thejr aadervreat in Talan, famines and soeh thinga, aud a general ddmpaess and oold, — ^for the earth fr<w moist, there being as yet no sua. • • • Tiiey determiaed to leare Tulan; and the greater part of them, nader the gaardiduishlp and diractioa of Tohil, set oat to se<9 where they shoald take ap their abode. Ttiey oontinaed on their way amid Uid moat extreme hardships for want of foo L • • • At last they came to a moantaia that they named H ica?itz, after one of their gods, and here they rested, ^or here they were by some means eiren to nnderstAnd that th«j shoald see the saa. • • « Aad the sao, ai^ the mooa, and the stars w«e njw all established. Tot was not the san then ia the bt^nniog the same as now; his heat wanted force, and he w^ bat as a rofl -clion ia a mirror. [This is explained if we sappose a soathem mimtioo.] • • • Another wonder whea the sua rose I The three tribal gods, Tohil, AWlix, and Uacarltz, vcre turned iuto stone, as were also the godd connected with the lion, the tigter, the 7iper, aad other fierce and daagnrous aoimals. • • • And the people moltipUed oi thi4 Hoaac Hicaritz, aal here they bailt their city. • • • Aad they worshipped the gods thit hid become stone, Tohll, Arilix, aad H icayitz. • • • They begin to wet their altars with the heart's blood of hamaa victims. From their moantaln hold they watched for lonely trarelets beiondag to the sarroandiog tribes, seised, oyerpowered, aad slew them f«ir a sacrHlce. • • • Tue hearts of the villagers were thas fatigaed within them, ?arsaing aakaowa eaemies. At last, however, it became plain that the gods ohil, Avillx, and Hacavitz, and their worship, were in some way or other the caase of this bareavemiat: so the people of the villager conspired ag^dnst them. Mao V attacks, b jth openly and by rases, did they make on tiie gods, and oa the loar mea, aad on the children and people coouected with them; bat not oace did they sacceed, so ^reat wm the wisdom, aad power, and oonrage of the foar mea and of their deities. • • • At last the war was finished. • • • And the tribes haaiiliated themselves before the face of Balam-Qaitzi, of B«lam* Agab, aud of Mahucutah. • • • Now it came to puss that the time of the death of B^m-Qaitze, Balam-Agab, Mahucatah, and lai-Bahun drew near. • • • Aud they said: we return to our people. • • • So the old men took leave of their soas aad their wives. • • • Then instantly the foar old mea were not; but in their place was a great buudle. • • • So it was called the Mijesty Eaveloped • • • and they bamed incense before it." [Such a buadle was said ** to contain the remains of Camaxlli, the chief sod of Tlascala.'1-Vol. iii, pp. 49 64.
" Gods and men" — Further grounds for taking the view expressed in § 200, respecting the *' gods and men ** of the Hebrew legend, have siDce been famished by the jast-issned Chaldean Account of Genesis^ by Mr. George Smith. Here is the passage: — " It appears from line 18 [of the tablet] that the race of hnraan beings up. ken of is the zcUmatqaqadi, or dark racfl, and in various other fragments of these legends they are culled Admi or Adami, which is exactly the name given to the first man in Genesis. • • • *' It has already been pointed out by Sir Henry Rawlinson that the Bdbylo- nians renngaized two principal races: the Adamn, or dark race, and the Sarkn, or light race, probably in the same manner that two races are mentioned in Genesis, the tons of Adam and the sons of God. It appears incidentally from the fragments of inscriptions that it was the race of Adam, or the dark race, which was believed to nave fallen." — pp. 85 6.
YeriGcation is also hereby afforded of the suggestion made in § 178 (note) that the forbidden frnit was the inspiriting and illa- minating product of a plant which the conquering race forbade the subject race to consume. The objection^ not unlikely to be raised, that the words ^^ fruit " and '' eating " do not countenance this interpretation, would be sufficiently met by cases of our own meta- phorical uses of these words (" fruit of the womb," " opium-eating'*); but it may be met more directly. Of the Zulus, Canon Callaway says — " The natives speak of beer as food — and of eating it. They also call snuff food, and speak of eating it."
Fijian Gods, — Since writing the comparison made in § 201, be- tween the Qreek pantheon and the pantheon of the Fijians, an un- known correspondent has been good enough to forward to me a statement which bears, in an interesting way, on the question. It is contained in a parliamentary paper. Correspondence respecting the Cession of Fiji^ presented Feb. 6, 1875, p. 67; This document concerns the native ownership of land; and the passage I refer to appears to be appended by way of showing how the native idea of ownership is affected by their creed: — "Note.— Their fathers or their Gods.— It may not be ont of place in connection with the above memorandnm to advance one or two facts with the object of showing that the head of the tribe, i.e., its high(>Bt living male ascendant, was regarded as its father. He held alnolute authority over the persons, property, and lives of his people, and both before and after death had the same reverence shown to him as to a God.
" The Fijian language makes no distinction, in terms, between the marks nf respect and reverence rendered to a Chief and those rendered to a God. I will select a few words, with their meanings, from Hazelwood*s Fijian Dictionary. ' 1. Tama— a father. 2. Tama-ka— to reverence, to clap hands, or to make some expression of a God or Chief. 8. Cabora~to offer or present propertv to a Goa or to a Chief. 4. Ai sevn — the first dng yams, the first fmits, which are generally offered to the Gods and given to a Chief of a place. 6. Taavn, and Yeitanvn — LdteraUy, to have the same root, or sprang from the same sonree; need of people who wonhip the same God.' • • • '* The swearing of Fijians is like that of the High Asiatic peoples. Two men qnarrelling never swe ir at each other personally, nor even ntter their respective names; they will cnrse their fi^thera, their grandfathers, and their most remote ancestry. The reason being that to corHe a Fijian*8 father is to carse his r Ood. • • • The snocMsiTtt sUgm of aathoritv among Um Fijiu pcoph is first, that of tha individoal family; secondly, the aasoeiatioQ of mtf J fumiliea, which oonatitnte the Qali; and thirdly, the nnioa of thcae Qilu under their Kcognixed hereditary Chief, which constitatea the Mataaito. It li the Family, Qens, and Trihe of early history fonnd extant, and as a ^stea ttill closely ohseryed in Polyneeia at the preaeiu day."
Aryan Ancator-worship, — The more I hare looked into the evidence, the more I have marvelled at those who, in the interests of the mythological theory, assert that the Aryans have been distiD- gaished from inferior races by not being ancestor- worshippers; and who ascribe sach ancestor-worship as cannot be overlooked, to imitation of inferior races. If the American filliboster Ward, now apotheosized in China, has a temple erected to him there, the fact is accepted as not unnatural among the ancestor-worshippuig Chinese. But in India, among Aryans, we mast ascribe to the bad example of lower types, the erection of a temple at Benares to the English fillibaster Warren Hastings.—:(Par^ Hist.jjcxvuy pp. 773-7) I find nothing bat such nnwarranted assumption to be pat again^ the clear evidence that ancestor-worship was dominant among pri- mitive Aryan3, long remained dominant among civilized Aryaos sarvived in considerable strength in medieval Christendom, and hti not yet died away. When we learn that the Aoesta describei sacrifices for the dead, and contains prayers calling upon them— when we read in the Institutes of Menu (Sir W. Jones's transiaUoa, Yol. ill, p. 203) that '' an oblation by BixJimens to their ancestors transcends an oblation to the deities; because that to the deities i^ considered as the opening and completion of that to ancestors"-— when, taming to the Aryans who migrated West, we remember how dominant propitiation of the dead was among theoL calling from Grote the words '^ sepulchral duties, sacred beyond ail otberi in the eyes of a Greek" — when we are reminded how the early Romans, ascribing to their manes-gods a love of human blood, doJj administered to it; our boldness of assumption must be great if we can say that Aryan ancestor-worship was not indigenous bat adopted.
Were it true that necrolalry ^as not rooted in the primitive Aryan mind, as in other primitive minds (a marvelloos difference^ did it exist), it would be strange that though superficial it was so difficult to extirpate. Christianity spread without extinguishing it: in a capitulary of 742 Karloman prohibits " sacrifices to the dead."* Nor hsus it been extinguished by modern Christianity, as was shown in § 152. Here is farther evidence from Hanusch, SUxdsd^ "According to Oebhardi the Miiniana, Laosttziana, Biihemiana, SilesiaoSi and Poles, upon the first of March early in the BAorniog went foith with torches, guiag to the cemetery and offering np food to their anoeators. Accord' ing to Grimm, the Esthonians leave fo^ for the dead in the night of tbc aecond of November, and are glad if in tha morning aomethiog is found to be m ooviiiiti«L • • • With all Slayes it was a coatora to have a meal for the dead not only upou the day of fuaeral bat annaally; the former was intended for the perticalar dead, the latter for the dead in general. • • • At the latter they believed the aonls to be preeeot perBonaUy. Silently little bits of food were thrown fot them nnder the table. People believed they heard them rustle, and saw them feed upon the smell and vapour of the food.'* 1 may cloae with the conclasive testimoaj of one who has had onasual opportonities of stadjing Aryan saperstitions as now being generated, and whose papers in the Fortnigktly Review show how competent he is both as observer and reasoner — Mr. A. C. Lyall. In a letter to me he says: — " I do not know who may be the aathor of the statement which yon quote at p. 313, that < No IndoEaropean nation seems to have made a religion of the worship of the dead; * but it is a generalization entirely untenable. Here in Rajpntaoa, among the purest Aryan tribes, the worship of famous ancestors is most prevalent; and all their heroes are more or less deified."
Religion of the Iranians.^^ust when going to press with this Appendix, my attention has been drawn by Dr. Scheppig to some extremely important facts contained m the work of Fr. Spiegel, Erdnische Altertkumskunde^ vol. ii. (1873), pp. 91, etc. While affording the needful verification of the statement above made con- cerning ancestor-worship in the Zend-Avesta^ it affords highly significant evidence concerning the ideas of ghosts (frctvoMs) and of ghost-mechanism throughout creation, which were held by the Persian branch of the Aryans.
Nature of the Fravashi.— (p. 92). ^^Thefracaski is in the first place a part of the human soul. In this sense the word is used in the Avesta, • « • Later works of the Parsee give us more exact infor- mation about the activity of the fravashi. The frohar or fravashi — so It is stated in one of those works, the Sadder Bundehesh — has the task of making useful what a man eats, and removing the heavier parts. Accordingly, the fravashi is the part intermediating between body and soul; but it is conceived as a person, independent in general, and particularly from the body. The Sadder Bundehesh recognizes other psychic powers besides: the vital power {jdn\ the coD-cience {aJcho)^ the soul (rerd/i), the consciousness {b6i). Of these the vital power is so intimately connected with the body that the latter perishes as soon as the former has vanished. In a body thus doomed to perish the other psychic powers cannot stay either: they leave it; the conscience, because it has not done anything wrong, makes straightway for heaven, while soul, consciousness, and fravashi remaining together, have to answer for the deeds of the man, and are rewarded or punished."
Fravashis of Gods and Men. — (p. 94). ^' Every living being has a fravashi^ not only in the terrestrial but in the spiritual world. Not even Ahura-Mazda [the chief god] is excepted; his fravashi is freqneutly alluded to (Yd. 19, 46, Yt 13, 80) as well as the>nir8^ of the Amesha-^pentas and the other Yazatas (Y9. 23, 3, Tt 13, %t\ Most frequently the fravaskis of the Paoirydtkaesbas are iDToked, I.e., those of the pions men who lived before the appearance of the law. To them, generally, the fravaskis of the nearest relatioiis,aDd the framshi of the person himself, are added. • • • It maj appear surprising that the fravaskis of the ^bom and unborn ' are iuToM (Y9. 26, 20). The clue may be found in Yt. 13, 1 7, where it is stated that the fravaskis of the pious who lived before the lav, and of the beings who will appear in future, are more powerfil than those of other people, living or dead. Here worship of ntanes and of heroes is mixed up. Among these fravaskis the ancestors of the particular family, and of the particular clan or trlbe^ were worshipped.'' (p. 97.) <* The preceding facts are taken from the A vesta. In the western monuments the name of the fircaxukis does not occur. I have, however, no doubt that their authors were acquainted with them. In my opinion they correspond with ^ clan deities {vitkihia bagcubis) mentioned several times by Darius in his inscription H; those again are the slioi irarptfoi of the ancie&t&'