several persons letters of privateering and authority to make captures, and some of these persons had captured the property of friends, and, leaving their country, led a life of sea-rovers, not returning even when summoned home;— Whether the rulers were bound to restitution; either as having used the agency of bad men, or as not having demanded cau- tion-money. I gave my opinion, that they were bound to nothing more than to punish and surrender the guilty persons, if they could be found; and, besides, to make the goods of the plunderers liable: for that they had not been the cause of the unlawful spoliation, nor had in any way shared in it; and had forbidden by law the plunder of friends: that there was no law obliging them to demand caution-money, since they might, if they chose, give all their subjects the right of capturing enemy's goods, which in former times had been done: and that such permission was not the cause why friends had been damaged, since private persons, even without such permission, could arm vessels and go tosea. And that whether those who went would turn out good or bad men, could not be foreseen; nor was it avoidable to use the agency of bad men as well as good, since otherwise no army could be got together.
2 Nor, if either soldiers or sailors, contrary to command, do any damage to friends, are the kings liable; which has been proved by the Const. Gall. tit. 3. const.
Less. ii. 11. Soto, iv. q. 6. art. 3.
198 DE DAMNO PER INJURIAM DATO, ET [Lrs.II.
ex quo dijudicanda esset hse controversia, sed juris civilis, nec generalis, sed adversus nautas et alios quosdam ex ratio- nibus peculiaribus introductum. Atque in eam partem a su- premi auditorii judicibus contra Pomeranos quosdam pronun- tiatum est, idque ad exemplum rerum in causa non dispari, ante duo szcula, judicatarum.
XXI. Illud quoque notandum est, ut mancipium aut ani- mal quod damnum, aut pauperiem fecit, noxze dedatur, itidem ex jure civili esse,? Nam dominus, qui in culpa non est, na- tura ad nihil tenetur: ut nec is, eujus navis sine ipsius culpa navi alterius damnum dedit: quamquam multorum populorum legibus, ut et nostra, damnum tale dividi solet ob culpz:e pro- band: difficultatem.
XXII. Sed damnum, ut diximus, etiam adversus honorem et famam datur, puta verberibus, contumeliis, maledictis, ca- lumniis, irrisu, aliisque similibus modis. In quibus non minus quam in furto atque aliis criminibus vitiositas actus ab effectu discernenda est. Nam illi pena respondet, huie damni repa- 3 Hoc verum quidem est de Animali — At alia est ratio de Mancipio; ut osten- bruto, quod, utpote ratione destitutum, ^ dimus in Gallicis nostris Notis ad hune damnum proprie dictum dare nequit. locum. J. B.
testimony both of France and England: that any one, without any fault of his own, is bound by the acts of his agents, is not a part of the Law of Nations; by which this controversy must be decided, but a part of the Civil Law; nor of that in general, but introduced against sailors, and certain others, for peculiar reasons. And sentence was given to that effect by the Judges of the Supreme Court, against certain Pomeranians; and that, according to the precedent of a similar cause, adjudged two centuries ago.
XXI. Itis to be noted also that the rule, that if a slave, or any animal, cause any damage or loss, it creates a liability in the master, is also a creation of Civil Law.. For the master, who is not in fault, is not liable by Natural Law; as also he is not whose ship, without any fault of his, damages another's ship: although by the laws of many nations, and by ours, the damage in such case is commonly divided, on account of the diffieulty of proving where the fault lay.
XXII. Damages also, as we have said, may be inflicted on a man's honour or reputation; as with blows, insults, abusive language, calumny, ridicule, and thelike. In which cases, no less than in theft, and other offenses, the badness or malice of the act must be dis- tinguished from the damage. For the badness of the act is a ground for punishment, the loss, for reparation: which, in this case, is made Car. XVIL.] OBLIGATIONE QUAE INDE ORITUR. 199 ratio, quz fit eulps, confessione, 'exhibitione honoris, testi- monio innocentizm, et per ea qu: his similia sunt: quanquam et pecunia tale damnum rependi poterit, si lzesus velit, quia pecunia communis est rerum utilium mensura.
Ezhibitione honoris, testimonio in- ^ accusationis injuste poenitentia ductus nocentie] Vide exemplum Viviani, qui ^ est, apud Cassiodorum rv. 41.
by confession of the fault, manifestation of respect, testimony of the innoeency of the calumniated person, and the like: though such damage may also be recompensed by money, if the injured person choose; because money is the common measure of valuable things.
CAPUT XVIII.
DE LEGATIONUM JURE.
I. Obligationes quasdam, ex jure gentiwm masci, ut jus legationwm.
II. Jnter quos locum habeat.
IIL 4» semper admittenda le- gatio.
IV..Adversus legatos periculosa molientes | defensionem. lici- tam, non exactionem pono.
V. Legationis jure mon teneri eum, ad quem legatus missus non est.
VI. Hostem ad quem. missus est legatus teneri: VII. Nec opponi posse jus talionis.
VIII. Jus hoc et ad. comites lega- torum porrigi: si legati vo- luerint.
IX. Et ad bona mobilia.
X. Ewempla obligationis, sine cogendi jure.
XI. Quanti sit hoc jus legationis.
1. ACTENUS ea memoravimus, qui ex jure naturz de- bentur nobis, paucis duntaxat additis de gentium jure voluntario, quatenus ab eo aliquid erat juri natursze superad- Jus Legationum, in se spectatum, vere oritur a Jure Naturali, ut ostendit PurreNponrivs, De Jure Nat. et Gent. Lib. 11. cap. iii. 8 28. Quse autem pri- vilegia moribus gentium tantum origi- nem debent, illa nemo tenetur Legatis concedere, nisi velit, et pacto vel ex- presso, vel tacito, ad illa concedenda sese obstrinxerit. J. BD.
^ Sanctimoniam legatorum] Pompo- nius l. δὲ quis. ult. D. de Legationibus: Si quis legatum hostium pulsasset, con- ira jus gentium id commissum esse cc- istimatur, quia sancti habentur legati: el ideo si cum legati apud mos essent gentis alicujus, bellum cum eis indictum sit, liberos eos manere. Id enim juri gentium conveniens esse. taque eum, qui legatum pulsasset, Quintus Mucius dedi hostibus, quorum erant legati, so- itus.est respondere. Lege Julia de vi publica tenetur, quod ad legatos oratores, comitesve attinebit, si quis eorum quem pulsasse sive injuriam fecisse ar- guetur, Ulpiano respondente in 1. /ege Julia, 1. D. ad legem Juliam de vi pub- lica. Josephus Zntique Historic libro xv. cap. 8. multum przdicat legatorum sanctimoniam, quibus ait commune eum angelis Dei nuntiis nomen. Varro, Lib. mr. de Lingua Latina: Sancta sunt corpora legatorum. Cicero, Verrina 111. Legatorum jus divino humanoque valla- tum presidio, cujus tam sanctum et ve- nerabile nomen esse debet, ut non modo inter sociorum jura, sed et hostium tela. incolume versetur. Scriptor vitz Epami- nondz: [Immo Pelopide. Conw. Nr- rOs,c. v. n. l.] Cum legationis jure se tectum. arbitraretur, quod apud omnes gentes sanctum esse consuesset, Diodorus Siculus in excerptis Peiresianis, Pag. 349. τὴν ἄδειαν vocat τῆς τῶν πρεσβευτῶν ἀσυλίας" securitatem a legatorum sanc- CnuaPrER XVIII.
Of the Right of Legation.
I. Hitherto we have spoken of things which are due to us by Natural Law, adding only a few points which belong to the instituted Law of Nations, in so far as by that any thing was added to the Law of Nature.
It remains to speak of the obligations which that which Car. XVIII.) DE LEGATIONUM JURE. 201 ditum. Restat veniamus ad obligationes quas ipsum per se jus illud gentium, quod voluntarium dieimus, induxit: quo in genere!prseipuum est caput de jure legationum. Passim enim legimus sacra legationum, *sanetimoniam legatorum, jus gentium illis debitum, jus divinum humanumque: sanctum in- ter gentes jus legationum, federa saneta gentibus, fedus huma- num: saneta corpora legatorum: Papinio ( Z7ebaid. τι. 486): Sanctum populis per s:eeula nomen. Cicero de haruspieum responsis: Sie enim sentio, jus legato- rum cum hominum praesidio munitum, tum etiam divino jure esse vallatum. taque hoe violare non injustum tantum esse, "sed et impium omnium confessione, ait Philippus in epistola ad Athenienses.
limonia. Apud Papinium Lib. rr. ( Theb, vers. 573): tutique regressus Legato.
Chrysostomus: καὶ οὐδὲ τὸν κοινὸν vó- μον ἠδέσθησαν, ὅτι ὁ πρεσβεύων οὐδέ- ποτεπάσχει τι κακόν" ne commune qui- dem fas hominum reveriti sunt, quod tu- tos prestat legatos ab omni malo. Ser- vius ad xr. ZEneidos (vers. 101): ab omni injuria tectis jure gentium. Ne omnia loca enotem, adde Livium Lib. r. de Laurentibus, (cap. 14) Dionem Chrysostomum de Lege et Consuetudine, Veleium Paterculum initio Lib. 11. Menandrum Protectorem, (Exc. Legat. 19) Epistolam Felicis ad Zenonem in appendice codicis Theodosiani data a Sirmundo. Totilas apud Procopium Got- thicorum X1. πᾶσι μὲν, ὡς ἐπὶ πλεῖ- στον εἰπεῖν, νόμος βαρβάροις, τὸ χρῆ- μα τῶν πρεσβέων σέβειν" omnibus, ut generatim loquar, barbaris mos legatos venerari. (Cap.16.) Idem de barbaris dixit Scafnaburgensis, Aimonius regi Clodov:zo h:ec dicta tribuit: Ad ertre- mum pro divinis simul humanisque legi- bus, qug injuriarum immunes sanciunt, debere esse eos qui mediatores hostilium efficiuntur armorum. Inter arma nam- que sola legatio pacis sequestra est..E- uit hostem qui legatione fungitur. Vide et Radevicum inappendiee. De Polonis vide Cromerum libro xx. De T'rcis Leunclavium libro virr. et libro xvir. De Mauris Marianam libro xr, e. 14. [Apud Varronem non exstant verba, quae tamquam ex illo adfert Auctor, circa initium Note istius. Errorem hausit e nota Dionys. Gothofredi in L. 17 D. De Legation. ubi hic pro verbis Varronis laudat, quod Cujacius dicit Observ. παι. 5. post indicatum Varronis fragmentum e Lib. 111. De Vita populi Hom. quod servavit NoN1ivus MARGCEL- Lus, p. 529. Edit. Mercer. Apud Vel- leium Paterculum etiam, Lib. 11. cap. 2. initio, nihil est quod hue faciat; et Auc- toripse locumillum, juxta rerum sensum, supra adtulit, cap. xv. ὃ 16, num. 2. in fine. Locus Ciceronis non est ex Verrin. 111. sed e Lib. 1. in Verr. c. 33. et prima etiam ejus verba petita sunt ex Orat. De Haruspic. Respons. cap. 16. J.B.]
b Sed οἱ impium] "Ἔργον ἀσεβὲς, ait Plutarchus in Vita ZEmilii, narrans we call the Instituted Law of Nations has of itself introduced: in which class, the principal head is the Right of Legation. For we everywhere read of the reverence for Embassies, the sacredness of Ambassadors; the Rights of Nations lodged in them by Divine and Human Law; all which belong to those Instituted Laws; with other Ap.Demosth.
Lib. vi. 17. Philip. v. 10.
AEn. vii. 369.
202 DE LEGATIONUM JURE. [Lir. II.
II. 1 Sed primum sciendum est, qualecunque est hoc jus gentium de quo videbimus, ad eos legatos pertinere, quos mit- tunt qui summi imperii sunt compotes inter se; nam qui extra hos legati sunt provinciales, municipales, atque alii, non jure gentium, quod inter gentes est diversas, sed jure civili regun- tur. Legatus apud Livium publieum se nuntium populi Ro- mani vocat. Apud eundem Livium alibi senatus Romanus jus legationis externo, non civi comparatum ait: et Cicero ut os- tendat non esse legatos mittendos ad Antonium: JVon enim, inquit, eum.Annibale ves est, hoste reipublice, sed cum cive. Qui autem externi habendi sint ita clare exposuit Virgilius, ut nemo jurisconsultorum possit clarius: Omnem equidem sceptris terram qu: libera nostris Dissidet, externam reor.
2 *Qui ergo impari junguntur federe, cum sui juris esse non desinant, jus habebunt legationis: immo et hi qui ex parte subditi sunt, ex parte non sunt, pro ea parte qua non sunt pium potest, quam legatos occidere pro «quitate loquentes? (Cap. v. S 3. pag.
Gentii factum, (p. 261.) | Josephus libro xv. Historie Antique: τοῦτο πὸ ὄνομα kal πολεμίους πολεμίοις διαλ- λάττειν δύναται" ποῖον οὖν μεῖζον ἂν γένοιτο ἀσέβημα ἢ πρέσβεις ἀποκτεῖ- ναι, τοὺς ὑπὲρ ποῦ δικαίου διαλεγομέ- νους; Hoc nomen et hostes hostibus valet reconciliare; quid ergo fieri magis im- € Qui ergo impari junguntur federe] Cromerus xxx.
4 Puta cum ita divisus est populus] Vide de legatis civitatis Toleti ad regem Johannem, Marianam libro xxir. 8. de the like phrases. [See other phrases in the text. Papinius Statius; Cicero.] Τὸ violate this is not only unjust, but impious, by the con- fession of all; as Philip says.
II. 1 But, in the first place, this Law of Nations, whatever it be, applies to those Ambassadors only who are sent by Sovereign Powers to one another. For those who are sent as representatives of pro- vinces, towns and others, are not governed by the Law of Nations, that is, by International Law, but by the Civil Law. An Ambassador, in Livy, calls himself the Public Messenger of the Roman People. And again, the Senate says that the Right of Legation belongs to a foreigner, not to a citizen. And Cicero, arguing that ambassadors should not be sent to Antony, says, For we have mot to deal with Annibal, an enemy of the State, but with a citizen of the State. — Virgil explains clearly who are strangers | (ZEn. vir. 369).
2 "Those states which are joined by an unequal league, when they do not cease to be their own masters, will have the Right of Legation: and also those who are only partly subject, for the part in which they are not subject. But kings who have been conquered in a formal Car. XVIII] DE LEGATIONUM JURE. 208 subditi. sunt, cum aliis regni bonis et jus legandi perdiderunt. Persei a se victi caduceatores retinuit P. ZEmilius.
3 In bellis vero civilibus necessitas interdum locum huic juri facit, extra regulam, *puta cum ita divisus est populus in partes quasi zequales, αὖ dubium sit ab utra parte stet jus im- perii; aut eum jure admodum controverso de regni successione duo decertant. Nam hoc eventu gens una pro tempore quasi dus gentes habetur. Ita *Flavianos accusat Taeitus, quod sacrum etiam inter exteras gentes legatorum jus in Vitellianis civili rabie temerassent. Piratz et latrones, qui civitatem non faciunt, jure gentium niti non possunt. Tiberius cum ad eum Tacfarinas legatos misisset, indoluit, quod desertor et przedo hostium more ageret: qu» verba sunt Taciti. tales qui sunt, jus legationis nanciscuntur fide data, ut olim fugitivi in saltu Pyrenzo.
III. 1 Duo autem sunt de legatis quee ad jus gentium referri passim videmus, prius fut admittantur, deinde ne vio- At reges qui bello solenni vieti, regnoque exuti Ideo Flandris Crantzium Sazxonicis x1. 33.
€ Flavianos accusat "Tacitus] Et Magnentium Zosimus libro 1t, May- νέντιος δὲ καθ᾽ ἑαυτὸν ἔστρεψε γνώμην, πότερον χρὴ Φίλιππον ἀποπέμπειν, ἢ κατέχειν παρ᾽ ἑαυτῶ ἄπρακτον σὸν €TL τοις πρεσι εσι πάτουντι ὕεσvolvebat, debereine Philippum irritum dimittere, an apud. se retinere calcato jure legationum. 15 Philippus a Con- stantio venerat. (Cap.47. Ed. Cellar.)
f Ut admiltantur] Donatus ad pro- logum Hecyrze: Oratorem audire opor- tere jus gentium est. (Ad vers. 1.)
μόν. AJMagnentius apud. animum suum war, and deprived of their kingdom, along with their other possessions, lose the right of legation. So P. ZEmilius retained the negotiators who came from Perseus, whom he had conquered.
3 But in civil wars, necessity sometimes makes room for this right, extra, regulam: for instance, when the people is divided into nearly equal parties, so that it is doubtful with which party the right of the supreme authority is: or when two claimants for the succession con- tend with very balanced pretensions. For in such an event, one nation is, for the time, two nations. Thus Tacitus aecuses the Flavians that the right of Legation, which is sacred even between strangers, they had savagely violated in the case of the Vitellians. Pirates and robbers, who do not make a State, cannot claim the right of legation. Tiberius, when 'Tacfarinas sent ambassadors to him, was disturbed that a deserter and a robber gave himself the air of an open enemy, as Tacitus says. Dut sometimes such persons obtain a right of lega- tion by promise given them on good faith, as was the case with a band of fugitives in the Pyrenees.
III. 1 There are two points with regard to ambassadors which Hist. iii. 80.
Sed interdum 4». iii. 73.
Csesar.de Bell. Civ. iii. 19.
201 DE LEGATIONUM JURE. [Lix. II.
Libxxi.1. lentur. De priore loeus est Livii, ubi Hanno senator Cartha- giniensis in Annibalem sie invehitur: JLegatos ab sociis, et pro sociis venientes bonus Imperator vester in castra mon admisit: jus gentium sustulit. Quod tamen non ita crude intelligendum est: 5non enim omnes admitti przcipit gen- tium jus: sed vetat sine causa rejici. Causa esse potest ex eo qui mittit, ex eo qui mittitur, ex eo ob quod mittütur.
2 Melesippus Lacedzmoniorum legatus, auctore Pericle, dimissus est extra fines agri Atticij quod ab hoste armato veniret. Sic "senatus Romanus negavit se Carthaginiensium legationem admittere posse, quorum exercitus esset in Italia. Persei adversus Romanos bellum molientis legatos non admi- serunt Achzi. Sie Totilee sspe perfidi legationem rejecit Jus- tinianus, οὐ Gothi, qui Urbini erant, DBelisariüi oratores. Cy- nethensium quoque, ut gentis sceleratz, legatos undique pulsos Thuc. ii. 12.
Zonar. Tom.
Liv. xli. 29.
Procop. iii.
&€ Non omnes admitti precipit gen- liun jus] Vide Camdenum in anno cIo Io rxxr. quaestionum ibi proposita- rum quarta.
h Senatus Rtomanus negavit se Car- thaginiensium — legationem — admittere posse, quorum exercitus esset in Italia] De hoe Romanorum more vide Servium ad vir. ZEneidos, (vers. 168.)
i Ubi causa miltendi aut suspecta est] Sic Andreas Burgus Cesaris lega- tus in Hispaniam non admissus: Mari- analibro xxix.(cap. 15.) Simile apud Cromerum libro xx.
k Intra decem dies Italia excederent] Carolus Quintus Imperator legatos Gallie, Venetorum, et Florentinorum ad bellum sibi indicendum missos deduci we everywhere find referred to the Law of Nations: that they be ad- mitted, and that they be not violated.
Of the first point; Hanno inveighs against Annibal, that, not ad- mitting the ambassadors of the allies, he had violated the Law of Nations. Which however is not to be understood so absolutely; for the Law of Nations does not prescribe that all ambassadors are to be admitted; but that they are not to be excluded without cause.
The cause may be on the part of him who sends, of him who is sent, or in the fact that he is sent.
[Examples of the first case. ) 2 Melesippus, the ambassador of the Lacedzemonians, was dismissed beyond the borders of the Attie territory, by the advice of Pericles, because he came from an armed enemy [within the territory). So the Roman Senate declared that no embassy of the Carthaginians could be received while their army wasin Italy. The Achzans did not admit the ambassadors of Perseus, when he was organizing a war agaiust the Romans. So Justinian rejected the embassy of Totila, who had often broken his faith; and the Goths at Urbino sent back the ambas- sadors of Belisarius. So Polybius relates that the ambassadors of the Car. XVIII ] DE LEGATIONUM JURE 205 narrat Polybius. Secundi exemplum est in Theodoro, qui ἄθεος vocabatur, quem a Ptolemzo ad se missum audire Ly- simachus noluit: idemque alis evenit peculiaris odii causa. Tertium quod diximus locum habet, 'ubi causa mittendi aut Lib. iv. 21.
ELS Laért.
suspecta est, ut Rhabsacis Assyrii legatio ad populum conci- 2 vv. xviii tandum merito suspecta erat Ezechiz, aut non ex dignitate aut temporibus conveniens, quam legationem mitterent, nisi permissu Imperatoris: Perseo ^ ne homam mitteret, sed ad Licinium: et Jugurthz legatis 1 edictum *intra decem dies Italia excederent, ni regnum et re- gem deditum venissent. Optimo autem jure rejici possunt, quz nune in usu sunt legationes assiduz, quibus quam non sit opus docet mos antiquus, cui illze ignoratz.
IV. 1!De non violandis legatis difficilior est quzestio, et varie a claris hujus sseculi ingeniis tractata. Videndum autem jussit in locum, qui a comitatu suo ab- esset triginta milliaria. Guicciardinus libio xvir. (pag. 472. δά. Genev. 1645.) Bellaius libro rrr. (fol. 103. Edit. Paris. 1513.)
De non violandis legatis] Menan- der Protector de Justino 11. Imperatore: ὁ δὲ παρὰ τὸν κοινὸν τῶν πρεσβευτῶν θεσμὸν, εἶχεν ἐν δεσμοῖς" Ille Avarorum legatos contra jus legationum in vinculis habuit. "Vide Ern. Cothmannum re- sponso xxxir. num 29. et sequentibus, volumine v. [Non Justinus 11, Lega- tos Avarum, sed Baianus, horum Rex, Justini legatos in vincula conjecit; Ex- cerpt. Legat. Cap.9. J. B.]
Cynethenses, as being those of a wicked race, were every where ex- pelled.
Of the second case, we have an example in Theodorus, who was called the Atheist, and whom Lysimachus would not hear, when he was sent by Ptolemy; and the same bappened to others on account of some peculiar odium.
The third case occurs when the cause of the mission is either sus- peeted, as when Rabshakeh was sent to Hezekiah: or is not con- formable to the dignity of the receiver, or to the time. Sothe Romans forbad the Etolians to send any embassy, except by permission of the Emperor; commanded Perseus to send, not to Rome, but to Licinius; and ordered the ambassadors of Jugurtha to quit Italy within ten days, except they came to surrender the king and the kingdom. The em- bassies which may be with the best right excluded, are those resident embassies which are now common, but which are not necessary; as we learn from ancient custom, to which they were unknown.
IV. 1 The question of the inviolability of ambassadors is more difficult, and variously treated by the able men of our time. We must first consider the persons of the ambassadors, and then their suite and property.
Sie /Etolis denuntiarunt MET ne Liv. xxxvii Lib. xxxii.36. Sallust. Bell.
206 DE LEGATIONUM JURE. [118. IT, habemus de legatorum personis, deinde de comitibus eorum ac bonis. De personis alii ita sentiunt, Jure gentium vim dun- taxat injustam ἃ legatorum corporibus arceri: censent enim privilegia ex jure communi interpretanda. Alii non omnibus de causis putant legato vim inferri posse, sed ita demum si jus gentium ab eo lesum sit, quod satis late patet: nam in jure gentium jus naturz includitur, ita ut ex omnibus delictis pu- niri jam legatus possit, nisi quz ex moro jure civili oriuntur. Restringunt hoe alii ad ea, quae contra statum reipublieze, aut dignitatem ejus, ad quem legatus mittitur, fiunt: quod ipsum sunt qui perieulosum putant, et querelas exponendas ei qui misit, ejusque arbitrio permittendum legatum. Sunt et qui putant consulendos reges aut gentes quarum nihil interest: quod prudentis esse potest, juris non potest.
2 Rationes quas pro se quisque afferunt nihil definite con- cludunt: quia jus hoe non ut jus naturale ex certis rationibus certo oritur, sed ex voluntate gentium modum accipit. Potu- erunt autem gentes, aut omnino cavere legatis, aut cum certis ? [mmo ex isto loco contrarium in- ferri potest; ut ostendimus in Notis nostris Gallicis; ubi et qua ad jus is- Gentium Juris voluntarii, sed ipsius Juris Naturalis. Ceterum longe fusius totum argumentum, etiam in eo quod ad merum usum Gentium refertur, a nobis postea exeussum est in Notis Gallicis tud Legationis pertinent, accuratius ex- ponuntur, ex principiis, non fictitii illius With regard to the persons of ambassadors, some are of opinion that they are protected only from unjust violence: for that their privileges are to be interpreted by common Law. — Others think that force may be put upon an ambassador, not for any cause, but only if he violate the Law of Nations; which is a very wide expression; for in the Law of Nations, Natural Law is included: and so, according to this, an ambassador might be punished for any offense, except those which arise from mere Civil Law. — Others restrict this to what is done against the state or dignity of the commonwealth to which the ambassador is sent: and others think that even this is dangerous, and that complaints against the ambassador are to be transmitted to him who sent him, and that he is to be left to be judged by him. Some, again, think that kings and nations who are not interested in the ques- tion, should be consulted; which may be a matter of prudence, but cannot be a matter of right.
2 'The reasons which each of these parties adduce do not conclude anything definitelv; because this Law of Nations is not like Natural Law, which flows in a sure way from certain reasons; but this takes its measure from the will of nations. For nations might either alto- gether refuse to entertain ambassadors, or with certain exceptions.
Car. XVIII] DE LEGATIONUM JURE. 207 exceptionibus: nam et hine utilitas stat pen: in gravia delin- quentes, et inde utilitas legationum, quarum mittendarum faci- litas securitate quanta potest esse maxima optime promovetur. Spectandum ergo quo usque gentes consenserint: quod ex solis exemplis evinei non potest. Exstant enim satis multa in par- tem utramque. HRecurrendum igitur tum ad sapientum judicia, tum ad conjecturas.
9 Judieia duo habeo maxime illustria, Livii alterum, alte- rum Sallust. Livii hoc est de legatis Tarquinii, qui proditio- nem concitaverant homz: Quanquam visi sunt commisisse, Liv. ii. 4. ut hostium loco essent, jus tamen gentium valuit. Videmus hie?etiam ad eos qui hostilia patrant jus gentium extendi. Sallustii dictum ad comites legationis, de quibus mox dicemus, non ad legatos ipsos pertinet: sed recte a majori, id est, mi- nus credibili, ad minus, id est, magis credibile, procedet argu- mentatio. Is ita ait: 2716 reus magis ex equo bonoque, quam, net. Jug. c. ex jure gentium,?.Bomilcar comes ejus, qui Romam fide" publica venerat. Donum et squum, id est, merum naturze ad Versionem Libri Ampl. BvwkrEn- tur, ut patet vel ex Interpretibus, qui suoECKII 7226 Foro Legatorum, cujus ^ verum ejus sensum dudum exposuerunt. secunda Editio prodiit Anno 1730, J. B. — J. 8.
* Locus iste male quoque huc trahi- For on the one side stands the utility of punishment against grave delinquents, [even if they be ambassadors,] and on the other, the utility of ambassadors, the sending of whom is facilitated by their having all possible security. We must consider, therefore, how far nations have agreed; and this cannot be proved by examples alone. For there are many each way. We must recur therefore to the judgments of good authorities and to conjectures, that is, probable arguments.
3 There are two judgments of great note, that of Livy, and that of Sallast. Livy's is about Tarquin's ambassadors, who stirred up a trea- sonable design at Rome: Z/ough they had behaved so that they might have been treated, as enemies, the Law of Nations prevailed: here we see that the Law of Nations is extended even to those who act as ene- mies. "The dictum of Sallust pertains to the subordinate members of the legation, of whom we shall have hereafter to speak, not to the ambassador: but the argument proceeds rightly, from the greater, that is, the less credible, to the less, that is, the more credible. He says thus: Bomilear, his companion, who had come to Kome on the public Jaith, is put under accusation, rather on the ground of equity, than. of the Law of Nations. Equity, that is, mere Natural Law, allows pen- 208 DE LEGATIONUM JURE. [Lir. IH.
jus patitur poemas exigi, ubi reperitur qui deliquit: at jus gentium legatos et qui his similes fide publica veniunt excipit. Quare ut rei fiant legati contra jus est gentium, quo vetari multa solent quae jus natur: permittit.
4 QConjectura quoque hine stat. — Verius enim est privile- gia ita intelligenda, ut aliquid tribuant ultra jus commune. Quod si legati ab injusta tantum vi tuti essent, nihil in eo magni esset, *nihil przecipui.— Adde quod securitas legatorum utilitati, que ex paena est, preponderat. Nam poena haberi potest per eum qui legatum misit volentem: et si nolit, ab ipso exigi bello, tanquam criminis approbatore. Objieiunt aliqui satius unum plecti, quam bello multos involvi; atqui si 15 qui legatum misit factum ejus probet, legati pcena bello nos non eximet. Parte vero altera valde in lubrico locatur salus lega- torum, si actuum suorum rationem alii reddere debeant, quam a quo mittantur. Nam cum plerumque diversa, sspe et ad- versa sint consilia eorum qui mittunt legatos, et qui accipiunt, vix est ut non semper aliquid in legatum diei possit, quod 4 Abunde sufficit, si non ob quivis οὐ Hispano. Utrumque habes apud delicta jure suo excidat Legatus. J.B. m “μὲ e finibus jubendus excedere legatus] Fecit id Stephanus Polonisz Camdenum in an. cIo Io rxxr. et cIo Iorxxxiv. [Quod Auctor heic in con- textu, quasi ex Polybio, refert, nullibi apud hune Auctorem reperio. Et vide- tur omnino deceptus ab Alberico Gentil, rex Moscis. Thuanus, libro rnxxrirr. in anno cIolorxxxri. Elisabetha Scoto, alties to be demanded when the delinquent can be got hold of; but the Law of Nations makes an exception in favour of ambassadors and those who come under the public faith. Hence to put ambassadors under accusation is contrary to the Law of Nations, which forbids many things which Natural Law permits.
4 Conjecture also is on this side. For it is the sounder opinion that privileges are so to be understood, that they give something beyond common rights. But if ambassadors were only protected from unjust violence, there would be in that nothing great, nothing distinguished. Add that the security of the ambassadors may preponderate over the utility which involves a penalty. For punishment may be had through his means who sent the ambassador; and if he will not afford it, may be demanded by war of him as the approver of the crime. Others object that it is better that one should be punished than many involved in war: but if he who sent the ambassador approve of what he did, his punishment will not save us from war.
On the other side, the safety of ambassadors is in a very inse- cure position, if they have to render account of their acts to other persons than him who sent bhem For since the views of those Car. XVIII.) DE LEGATIONUM JURE. 209 criminis accipiat speciem. ^ Et quanquam qusedam sunt ita manifesta, ut dubitationem non habeant, sufficit tamen ad zquitatem et utilitatem legis universalis periculum universale.
5 Quare omnino ita censeo, placuisse gentibus ut commu- nis mos, qui quemvis in alieno territorio existentem ejus loci territorio subjicit, exceptionem pateretur in legatis, ut qui sicut fietione quadam habentur pro personis mittentium (senatus faciem secum attulerat, auctoritatem reipublice, ait de le- gato quodam M, Tullius) ita etiam fictione simili constitueren- tur quasi extra territorium; unde et civili jure populi apud quem vivunt non tenentur. Quare si tale sit. delictum quod contemni posse videatur, aut dissimulandum erit, "aut e fini- bus jubendus excedere legatus, quod Polybius ei factum narrat qui Rom:ze obsidibus fugiendi causam przbuerat. Unde obiter datur intelligi, quod alio tempore legatus Tarentinorum, qui idem deliquerat, virgis ezsus est, id eo evenisse, "quod Ta- rentini vieti sub Romanis esse ccepissent. Si crimen sit atro- cius, οὐ ad publieum malum spectans, ^remittendus erit legatus -De Legat. 11. 21. qui ait: ut in. electis habet Polybius. lbi autem certe nihil tale. J. B.)
n Quod Tarentini victi sub Romanis peravit ne a comitatu suo abscederet, Guieciardinus (libro xvirr pag. 472) indicato jam loco.
ο Miltendus erit legatus ad eum qui esse cepissent] Sie Carolus V. legato ducis Mediolanensis, ut subditi sui, immisit] Dion in excerptis legationum: ὅτι νεανίσκοι τινὲς Καρχηδονίων πρέσwho send the ambassador and those who receive him are generally diverse, often contrary, it is scarcely possible that something may not be said against the ambassador which may take the form of an accu- sation. And though some things of this kind are so manifest that they admit of no doubt, the universal danger suffices to establish the equity and utility of the universal rule.
5 Wherefore I quite think thus: that the common rule, that he who is in a foreign territory is subject to that territory, does, by the common consent of nations, suffer an exception in the case of ambas- sadors; as being, by a certain fiction, in the place of those who send them: [see Cicero:] and by a similar fiction they are, as it were, eztra territorium; and thus, are not bound by the Civil Law of the People among whom they live. Hence, if there be any delicet which can be treated lightly, either it is to be overlooked, or the ambassador ordered beyond the borders, as Polybius relates was done to him who at Rome had aided the escape of the hostages. On which occasion, in passing, we are given to understand that at another time, the ambassador of the Tarentines, who had committed the same offense, was scourged; but that was done, because the Tarentines had begun [GRor. r1.] τ: Phil. viii. 8, 210 DE LEGATIONUM JURE. [Lir. II.
ad eum qui misit, cum postulato ut eum puniat aut dedat, quomodo Gallos postulasse legimus, ut sibi dederentur Fabii.
6 Sed, quod supra diximus aliquoties, humana jura omnia ita esse comparata, ut non obligent in summa necessitate, id de hoe quoque przcepto sanetimoniz legatorum obtinebit. Ve- rum is apex necessitatis non est in sumtione pons, quam et aliis in casibus tolli jure gentium infra apparebit, cum de so- lennis belli effectibus agemus: multo minus in loco, tempore, ac modo sumendz poenze, sed in przecautione gravis mali, prze- sertim publici. Quare ut obviam eatur imminenti periculo, si alia nulla est ratio idonea, et retineri et interrogari legati poterunt. Ita consules Romani Tarquinii Plegatos deprehen- derunt, "literarum in primis habita cura, ut Livius loquitur, ne interciderent.
salos ad libertatem concitaret.
βεις eis τὴν Ρώμην ἐλθόντες, ὑβρίσαν- τες, ἐπέμφθησαν μὲν εἰς τὴν αρχηδόνα, καὶ ἐξεδόθησαν σφίσιν, οὐκ ἔπαθον δὲ ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν δεινὸν οὐδὲν, ἀλλ᾽ ἀφείθη- σαν" Cum juvenes quidam legati a Car- thagine «Romam venissent, ibique contu- meliose quedam fecissent, missi sunt Carthaginem, traditique Carthaginien- sibus, ab his vero nihil illis nocitum est, sed. dimissi sunt incolumes. [Exoc. Fulv. ÜUrsin. num. 18. ubi ex incogitantia Auctor noster postrema verba male ver- tit, pro: Z'raditique illis, scilicet, &o- manis, non Carthaginiensibus, a quibus contra legati dediti sunt. J.B.)