2 Cum his non pugnat quod Antonini constitutione quot- quot in orbe Romano sunt, cives Romani effecti sunt. — Con- secuti enim ea constitutione sunt subditi Romani imperii ea jura, quz» olim habebant coloniz&, et municipia, et provinciae togatz, ut et honorum participes essent, et jure Quiritium ute- rentur: non ut in aliis populis itidem ut in populo urbis Romae 'fons imperii esset: quod facere in potestate Imperatorum non fuit, qui habendi imperii modum ae causam mutare non potu- erunt. Nee quod Imperatores postea Constantinopoli quam Rom: habitare maluerunt, de jure populi Romani quiequam imminuit: sed tunc quoque electionem factam a parte sui quze Constantinopoli habitabat, unde Byzantinos Quirites vocat Claudianus, ratam populus totus habuit: jurisque sui monusemper fuistis, el in vestris posteris eri- tis. (Cap. 11.) Majorianus ad senatum in novellis: Zmperatorem me Jjfactum, Patres conscripti, vestree electionis arbi- trio et fortissimi exercitus ordinatione agnoscite. [1v.3. Supplem. ad fin. Cod. Turopos. Ed. Gothofred.]
t Fons imperii esset] Senatus pro Gordiano apud ZZerodianum provincias hortatur πείθεσθαι Ῥωμαίοις ὧν δημό- σιον ἄνωθεν τὸ κράτος ἐστὶν, αὐτώτε φίλα καὶ ὑπήκοα ἐκ προγόνων" Pa- rere Romanis, quorum ab antiquo esset imperium, quibus veteri jure gentes alie amorem obsequiumque prestarent, (Lib. vir. c. 7. Ed. Boecl.) Apud eundem Maximus in alloceutione ad milites: οὐ ydp ἑνὸς ἀνδρὸς ἴδιον κτῆμα ἡ ἀρχὴ, ἀλλὰ κοινὸν τοῦ Ῥωμαίων δήμου ἄνω- θεν, καὶ ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ πόλει ἡ τῆς βα- σιλείας ἵδρυται τύχη." ἡμεῖς δὲ διοικεῖν καὶ διέπειν τὰ τῆς ἀρχῆς μεθ᾽ ὑμῶν ἐγκεχειρίσμεθα. [Non enim unius viri possessio est hoc imperium, sed antiqui- tus res est populi Romani: in hac urbe principatus fortuna sita, est, nos vero vobiscum, milites, in id electi sumus, ut ea, que imperii sunt, curemus ac tueamur, (Lib. virr. c, 7.) Claudianus de toma: Armorum legumque parens quz fudit in omnes Imperium.
(-De Sec. Cons. Stilic. vers. 136.)
stitution of Antonine, all the inhabitants of the Roman Empire were made Roman citizens. For by that constitution, the subjects of tho Roman Empire obtained those rights which the Colonies formerly had, and the Municipalities (M»wnicipia,) and the Togate Provinces, (Provincie Togatce;) namely, that they should participate in the honours of the state, and use the Roman Law (jus Quiritium;) but not that the source of Empire should be in other peoples, as it was in the people of the city of Rome; which to do, was not in the power of the Emperors, because they could not change the manner and cause of holding the imperial authority *.
Nor did it detract any thing from the right of the Roman people, * Grotius here sets up one fiction, that, under the Emperors, the right of election was in the people of Rome; and then another fiction, that this first fiction is not to be extended to persons not belonging to,the city of Rome, though they had been made Roman citizens. We cannot wonder that he has found opponents in this view, as Gronovius in his Notes.
In Eutrop.
14 QUANDO IMPERIA VEL [Lrr. II.
mentum non tenue servavit "in urbis suze przerogativa, *et in honore consulatus alisque rebus. Quare jus omne, quod hi, qui Constantinopoli habitabant, ad eligendum Imperatorem Romanum habere poterant, pendebat a voluntate populi Romani: et cum illi *contra mentem ac morem populi Romani "feminze Irenes subiissent imperium, ut alias causas omittamus, merito populus Romanus illam concessionem sive expressam sive taci- tam revocavit, et per se Imperatorem legit, ac voce primi civis, id est, episcopi sui (quomodo et in Judaica republica, rege non existente, prima erat summi Pontificis persona) pronuntiavit.
ἃ fnurbis sue praerogativa] Ait Zo- Y Contra mentem ac morem populi naras (in Vit. Constantini) Romze ser- | Fomani] Nero in xiv. annalium Taciti vata πρεσβεῖα, przlationem, quod inde — (cap.11) matrem accusat: Quod con- venisset imperium. (Lib. xir. cap.3.) — sortiwm imperii, juraturasque in femina Ammianus (Lib. xiv. c. 6) de Roma: ^ verba pretorias cohorles, idemque de- Per omnes tamen quotquot sunt partes — decus senatus et populi speravisset.
ut domina conspicitur et regina. Clau- Priscus in excerptis legationum: οὐ dianus Honorio agente Ravenne (De γαρ θηλειών, ἀλλ᾽ ἀῤῥένων τ τῆς Ῥω- vi. Cons. Honor. vers. 407): μαϊκῆς βασιλείας ἀρχή; | [Non enim fe- Quem, precor, ad finem laribus sejuncta po- minarum, sed marium est, Romani im- testas perii principatus. (Pag.27.) Lampri- Exsulat, imperiumque suis a finibus errat? ^ dius post mortem Heliogabali (cap.18): x Etin honore consulatus] Namalter — Cautum ante omnia, ne unquam mulier consulum ex urbe Romana, etisquidem senatum ingrederetur, utque inferis ejus priorem habebat locum. Procopius in — caput dicaretur devovereturque per quem arcana historia. [ Cap. 26. ubi de prece- — id esset factum. Trebellius Pollio He- dentia Consulis Romanine/;p)quidem.] ^ renniano: Zenobia usurpato sibi imperio, that the Emperors chose to live at Constantinople rather than Rome. It must be supposed that the election was made by that part of the Roman people which lived at Constantinople (whence Claudian calls the Byzantines Quirites) and confirmed by the whole people. And the Roman people preserved no small monument of its right, in the pre- rogatives of the city, in the honour of the consulship, and in other things. And therefore all the right that those who lived at Con- stantinople had to elect the Roman Emperor, depended on the will of the People of Rome. | And when the Byzantines had, contrary to the desire and practice of the Roman people, elected a woman, Irene, to the empire, to omit other reasons, the Roman people revoked that concession, express or tacit, and elected an emperor itself; and de- clared its election by the voice of its First Citizen, that is, its Bishop ἢ; * Here we have a third fiction, that the election of the Byzantine Emperors was made by the Roman citizens at Byzantium, (though the Roman citizens in other cities had not such power of election, by the second fiction;) and a fourth fiction, that it was confirmed by the Roman citizens at Rome: which last fiction is slightly countenanced by the protest against Irene: and a fifth fiction, that —mssnss t Car. IX.] DOMINIA DESINANT. 15 8 Fuit autem hzc electio personalis in Carolum Magnum, et quosdam ejus successores: *qui ipsi jus imperii quod habe- bant in Francos, ut et in Longobardos, a jure imperii in Romanos, ut nova ex causa qussito, sollicite distinxerunt. PPostea vero diviso Francorum populo in occidentalem, qui Galliam nune obtinet, et orientalem, qui Germaniam sive Ale- maniam tenet (duo Francorum regna vocat Frisingensis) cum populus Francorum orientalis eligendo sibi reges facere cc- pisset (^nam et ad id tempus Francorum regum successio quasi agnatica, non tam a jure certo, quam a populi suffragiis diutius quam feminam decuit, rempubli- cam obtinuit. (In xxx. Tyrann. c. 27.)
? Femine Trenes subiissent imperium] Dicto etiam ei sacramento, quod habet Zonaras. [Sed vi extorto. Lib. xv. cap. TN a Qui ipsi jus imperii quod habebant in Francos, ut et in Longobardos, a jure imperii in Romanos, ut nova ex causa quesito, sollicite distinzerunt] Vide Sy- nodum Pontigenensem inter capitula Caroli Calvi. Et Paulum ZEmilium Lib. rx. de Carolo Magno.
b Postea diviso Francorum Populo in occidentalem, qui Galliam nunc ob- tinet, et orientalem, qui Germaniam] Meibomii: et pactum Caroli et Henrici post capitula Caroli Calvi, et ad id no- tas viri magno judicio doctrinaque prze- diti Jacobi Sirmundi. ^ Occidentalem illam Franciam Latinam Wibbo vocat, quod ibi sermo Romanensis vigeret, ut et nune viget, cum "Transrhenanze na- tiones lingua Germanica uterentur, € Nam et ad id tempus Francorum regum successio quasi agnatica, non tam a jure certo, quam a populi suffragiis, pependerat| Observatum id Prisco in excerptis legationum, et Reginoni ad annum Io cccexvr. Carolus Magnus in testamento: Quod si filius quilibet ho- rum trium filiorum.
Vide Witikindum libro r. et ibi notata (as in the Judaic republic before the kings existed, the High-priest was the first person.)
3 This election was a personal election in the case of Charle- magne and some of his successors: who themselves carefully distin- guished the right of authority which they had over the Franks and Lombards, from their right over the Romans, as obtained on new grounds. But afterwards, when the Frank people were divided into a western people, which now holds France, or Gallia, and an eastern, which holds Germany or Alemannia; and when the eastern Franks, (the Germans) had begun to elect kings, (for at that time the succes- sion of Frankish kings was qwas? agnatic, but depended more on popular suffrage than on certain right;) it was agreed by the people the Pope, as the first citizen of Rome, declared the election made by the Roman People according to their ancient right; which is probably, as Gronovius says, not a view which would have pleased the Pope.
Grotius's scheme does however explain the relation of the Emperor of Ger- many, the kings of the Romans, and the Pope; and thus makes a jural transition from the ancient to the modern world, 'W.
16 QUANDO IMPERIA VEL [Lrx. II.
pependerat) plaeuit populo Romano, quo certius przsidium haberet, regem non proprium sibi sumere, sed eum quem Germani fecissent: "ita tamen ut jus sibi aliquod retineret probandz vel improbandz electionis, quantum scilicet ea res ad se pertinebat.
4 He quoque approbatio per episcopum edici et solem- niter testata fieri peculiari coronatione solebat: quare ex elec- üone septem principum, qui Germanis corpus referunt, qui lectus est, jus habet imperandi Germanis secundum eorum mo- res: ex approbatione vero populi Romani fit idem rex, aut Imperator Romanus, aut, ut historici sepe loquuntur, *Rex regni Italie: atque eo titulo sub se habet quszecumque populi Romani fuerunt, neque pactionibus, aut derelicti occupatione, aut victori: Jure in aliorum populorum imperium concesserunt: kindi Saxonica: et Cranzium Sazxoni- corum v.(cap. 13). In juramento Ot- 4 Jta tamen ut jus sibi aliquod reti- neret probanda vel improbande electionis] Verissima res, et aperte testata Wibboni vita Conradi Salici.
e Her regni Italie] Sic in excom- municatione Henrici distincte nominat Papa regnum "Teutonicorum et Ttaliz: tonis quod Gratianus intulit in Distinc- tionem nxru. Zn Koma nullum placi- tum sive ordinationem faciam de omni- bus que ad te (Papam) aut Romanos pertinent, sine tuo consilio. (c. 33.)
f Investituras tribuat feudorum Im- perii Romani] Nempe ut in imperio Vide Ottonis privilegium Alderamo datum, editum a Meibomio post Witiof Rome, in order that they might be sure of a protector, not to have a king of their own, but the king whom the Germans had elected: yet so that they might retain some power of confirming or annulling the election, so far as they were concerned.
4 This approbation was wont to be proclaimed by the Bishop, aud solemnly celebrated by a special coronation, [that of King of the Ro- mans.] Wherefore he who is elected by the Seven Princes who re- present Germany, has authority to rule over the Germans according to their usages. But the same person is, by the approbation of the Roman people, made Roman Emperor, or King, or, as historians often speak, King of the kingdom of Italy. And by that title, he has under him whatever belonged to the people of Rome, and that has not passed uuder the authority of other peoples by compact, or by occupation of derelict, or by the right of conquest.
And hence we easily understand by what right the Bishop of Rome, during the vacancy of the Empire, gives the investitures of the fiefs of the Roman Empire; namely, because he is the first person in the Roman people, which at that time is free. For whatever office belongs to any body, is wont to be discharged by the first person of that body, as we have elsewhere said.
Car. IX.] DOMINIA DESINANT. 17 unde illud quoque intelligi facile potest, quo jure episcopus Romanus, vacante imperio, finvestituras tribuat feudorum imperii Romani, quia scilicet in populo Romano, tali tempore libero, primas obtinet. Solent autem qus sunt corporis ali- eujus per primam personam corporis nomine expediri, ut alibi quoque diximus. Neque vero male Cynus et Raynerius tradidere, si Imperator Romanus morbo aut captivitate impe- diretur fungi imperio, posse ei viearium dari ab ipso populo Romano.
XII. Heredis personam, quoad dominii tam publiei quam privati continuationem, pro eadem censeri cum defuncti per- sona, certi est juris.
XIII. Victor autem victo quatenus succedat, infra in ef- fectibus belli explicabitur.
Germanico Palatinus et Saxo Vicarii imperii, divisis partibus. Vide Serra- num Ludovico XII. (Pag. 505. Ed.
tanquam primus inter Ordines, Phi- lippus Honorius in dissertatione de reg- no Polonie. [Immo 2e Znterregno Po- lonie. Et illa dissertatio est Horatii E Per primam personam corporis nomine expediri] Nam et in Polonie interregno Archiepiscopus Gnesnensis Spanorchii: quam Phil. Honorius tan- tum inseruit Thesauro Politico, a se collecto et edito, pag. 426, et seqq.
Regis locum tenet, in solio regio sedet, ^ Edit.Francof[ 1017. J. B.]
Nor is that unsound which Cynus and Raynerius have laid down, that if the Roman Emperor were prevented from discharging his office by disease or captivity, there might be a substitute for him appointed by the Roman People.
XII. That the person of the heir, as to the continuation both of public and private ownership, is to be conceived as the same with the person deceased, is undoubted law.
XIII. How far the Conqueror succeeds to the Conquered, will be explained below in speaking of the effects of war.
[cnor. rr.]
CAPUT X.
DE OBLIGATIONE QUZE EX DOMINIO ORITUR.
I. Obligatio reddendce domino vei aliene wnde et qualis. [Exstantiam restituere, — et quantum, in 86 est. efficere ut reddantur.
IL. Non exstantibus,] obligatio de veddendo eo quod quis luerifecit ex alieno: quc multis exemplis Mlustratur.
Bone fidei possessorem, ad vestitutionem, mon teneri, si ves perierit.
IV. Eundem teneri ad. vestituen- dos fructus exstantes: V. Et conswmntos, nis? alias con- swintwurus non fuerit: III.
VI. Aon eos, quos meglevit per- cipere. VII. Non teneri eundem, ad vestitutionem rei, quam, donavit alii, cum distinctione: VIII. ec si rem emtam vendiderit, similiter cwm distinctione. Quando pretiwm. aut ejus partem. servare possit, qui vem alienam bona fide emit. X. Rem alienam emtam restitui venditori non posse.
TX: XL Qwi rem habet, cujus igno- vetur. dominus, nemini teneri eaim, concedere.
XIL Ob causam turpem, aut alioqui debitam, | acceptum "on esse vestituendum ma- turaliter.
XIII. Aefellitur | sententia statu- ens verum, qw pondere, qumero, mensura, constant, dominium sine consensu do- qni transire.
ΒΡ} XPLICATO, quantum instituto nostro sufficit, jure eo quod in personas aut res nobis competit, viden- dum etiam qus exinde nascatur obligatio adversum nos. Nas- citur autem hsec aut e rebus exstantibus (rerum nomine jam 1 Uncinis heic a me inclusa, in nulla Editionum, quz vivo Auctore prodie- rintjimmo neque in primis post mortem cjus vulgatis, reperiuntur. J. B.
a Tenetur is, qui rem nostram habet in sua, potestate, efficere quantum in se est, ut in nostram potestatem veniat] Inter przecepta jubentia legis Hebrzis datz est, ut res inventa restituatur do- mino. Przcepto jubente rxxrv. Fun- damentum id habet tum in zquitate naturali, tum in Deuteronomiiloco xxir. 1. Chrysostomus 1 Corinth. v. 8. Tav- τα δὲ Kal oi τῶν ἔξωθεν ἴσασι νόμοι; CnmaPTER X. Of the Obligation which arises from Ownership.
L 1 Having explained, as far as is requisite for our purpose, the Right which we may have over persons or things, we must now see what obligation upon us arises therefrom.
Now such obligation arises either from things extant, (including in things, persons,) or from things not extant.
Car. X.] DE OBLIGATIONE QUZE EX DOMINIO ORITUR. 19 comprehendam etiam jus in personas, qua utile nobis esse potest) aut non exstantibus.
2 E rebus exstantibus obligatio hzc nascitur, qua *^tene- turis, qui rem nostram habet in sua potestate, efficere quan- tum in se est, ut in nostram potestatem veniat. Quantum in se est, dico; neque enim obligatur ad impossibile, neque ad reddendam rem suis impensis: sed indicare tenetur, ut alter recipere suum possit. Nam sieut in rerum communium statu observanda erat szqualitas quzedam, ut huie non minus quam alteri rebus communibus uti liceret; ita introducto dominio hz;c?quasi societas inter dominos contracta est, ut qui rem οἱ τοὺς ἁρπάσαντας kai ἀφελομένους ἀφέντες, ἐκείνους κελεύουσιν ἀπαιτεῖν, παρ᾽ οἷς ἂν εὕροι τις τὰ αὐτοῦ κείμενα ἅπαντα. Hoc et seculi probant leges que jus mobis faciunt, omisso raptore aut fure, eos compellare qui res nostras qualescunque ec sint tenent. ('T'om. 1r. pag. 338. Ed. Savil.) Hieronymus ad Leviticum: Multi sine peccato putant esse, si alienum quod invenerint teneant, et dicunt: Deus mihi dedit. Cui habeo reddere? Discant, hoc peccatum simile esse rapinae, si quis inventa non reddat. [At locus ille non est Hieronymi, sed Origenis, ex Hom. tv. ἐπ cap. 6. Levit. unde versus est; ut in Editione Pithce- ana Corporis Juris Canonici observa- tum. J. B.] Augustinus Sermone xix. de Verbis Apostoli: Si quid invenisti et non reddidisti, rapuisti. Deinde: Qui alienum negat, si posset et tolleret. Utrumque Gratianus retulit in cause xiv. quzstionem v. Can. 6. et 8. Idem Augustinus de Fide et Operibus (cap. 7): Sicut jure prediorum tamdiu quis- que bone fidei possessor rectissime dici- tur, quamdiu se possidere ignorat alie- num; cum vero scierit, nec ab alieno recesserit, tunc male fidei possessor per- hibetur, tunc juste injustus possessor vo- cabitur. Pertinet huc et lex Wisigo- thorum Lib.ix. tit. 1. c. 9. Interdum vero ob causas graves lex civilis intendit augetque hane obligationem, ut in servo fugitivo lex Burgundica lib. r. tit. vi, Bona quz» dominis per injuriam ademe- rat Domitianus, Nerva restitui jussit. Habet id Xiphilinus (pag. 240 c. Ed. -H. Steph.) Apud Procopium Gotthi- corum τι. DBelisarius: οἴμαι δ᾽ ἔγωγε TOv τε βιασάμενον, καὶ ὃς ἂν τὰ ποῦ πέλας ἑκουσίως μὴ ἀποδιδῷ, τὸν αὐτὸν Mihi ita libet credere, pari loco esse res alienas sponte retinen- tem, et non reddentem, cum raptore.
? Nullam societatem, nullum pac- tum, heic intelligere necesse est. Vide quie hae de re, simul et de toto argu- mento istius Capitis, diximus in notis ad PurrENpoRriuM, De Jure Nat. et Gent. Lib. 1v. cap. xiii. alterius Editio- nis, ubi omnia accuratius exsequuti su- mus, quam in prima Editione, et, ut putamus, quam ab ullo adhuc factum fuerat, J.B.
e ἐν T εκὼν γε eivat, 2 From things extant, this obligation arises; that he who has a thing of mine in his power is bound to do so as much as he can that it may come into my power. Isay,as much as he can: for he is not obliged to what is impossible, nor to restore the thing to me at his own expense; but he is bound to indicate it, that another may recover what is his. For as in the state of community of things, a certain equality came to be observed, so that one might be able to use those Diod. xv. 90. Plut. Pelop.
Hist. Graec.
De Offic. iii.
L. Bon. Fid. 31. D. Depos.
20 DE OBLIGATIONE QUZE [118. II.
alienam in sua haberet potestate, eam domino redderet. Nam 51 dominii ea tantum fuisset vis ut poscenti domino reddenda res esset, nimis debile futurum fuisset dominium, et nimis sumtuosa custodia.
9 Neque hie consideratur bona quis an mala fide rei pos- sessionem nactus sit: alia enim obligatio est, ex delicto, alia ex re. Lacedasmoni delicto se liberaverant, damnato Phoebida, qui Cadmeam Thebanorum arcem contra fcedus ceperat, sed ipsi "injustiti;: aeeusati quod arcem nihilominus retinerent. Eamque injustitiam, ut singularem, etiam singulari Dei pro- videntia vindieatam notavit Xenophon. Sie M. Crassum et Q. Hortensium reprehendit Cicero, quod hereditatis partem retinuissent ex testamento, quod falsum, sed sine eorum culpa, confectum erat.
4 Quia vero hzc obligatio tanquam ex contractu univer- sali omnes homines tenet, et jus quoddam rei domino parit, eo fit ut singulares contractus, quippe tempore posteriores, excep- tionem inde accipiant. Inde lucem accipit illud Tryphonini: b Jnjustitie accusati] Ita judicat ^ Agesilao: τὴν πόλιν ἔπεισεν eis αὐτὴν Diodorus libro xv. (c. 20). Plutarchus δέξασθαι τὸ ἀδίκημα; καὶ κατέχειν τὴν common things not less than another; so when ownership is intro- duced, there is a sort of association established among owners, that he who has in his power a thing belonging to another, is to restore it to the owner. For if ownership were only so far effective, that the thing is to be restored to the owner if he asks for it, ownership would be too feeble, and custody too expensive.
3 Noris it here considered whether a person has obtained pos- session of the thing bona fide or mala fide, believing that he has a right, or not: for the obligation from delict (mala fides) is one matter, but tbe thing (and possession of it) is another. "The Lacedsemonians tried to free themselves from the delict by condemning Phoebidas who had seized Cadmea, the citadel of the Thebans, in violation of the treaty; but as they, nevertheless, retained the citadel, they were charged with injustice: and this injustice, as being flagrant, was avenged by a singular providence of God, as Xenophon notes. So Cicero blames M. Crassus and Q. Hortensius who had kept possession of legacies by a will which was false, though fabricated without fault of theirs.
4 But because this obligation binds all men, as by a universal contract, and gives a certain right to the owner: hence it comes that special contracts, as later in time, are subject to exception. llence light is thrown on the case put by Tryphoninus. «4 robber took my Car. X.] EX DOMINIO ORITUR. 2] Latro spolia que mihi abstulit, posuit apud, Seiwum inscium de malitia deponentis: utrum latroni, an mihi restituere Seius debeat? δὲ per se dantem, accipientemque, intuemur, lc est bona fides, ut commissam rem recipiat is qui dedit: IST totius rei equitatem, qua ex omnibus personis, quc nego- tio isto continguntur, impletur, mihi reddenda sunt, quoi (male legitur quo) facto scelestissimo ademta sunt. Recte autem addit: Et probo hanc esse justitiam, que suum cuique ita tribuit, ut non. distrahatur ab ullius persona justiore repetitione. Justior nimirum est repetitio domini ex jure illo, quod ipsi dominio squsvum diximus: unde etiam illud se- quitur quod apud eundem Tryphoninum est, ut qui rem suam ignorans depositam accepit, reddere eam non teneatur: et quod ibidem paulo ante quzerebatur de bonis depositis ab eo, eujus bona erant publicata, hine potius quam ex eo quod de penarum utilitate adfert Tryphoninus, definiendum est.
5 Nam ad dominii naturam nihil refert, ex gentium, an ex civili jure oriatur: semper enim secum habet qus sibi καδμείαν δι᾿ ἑαυτῆς. Civilati persuasit — mile facinus Bajazetis in Nicopoli apud ut in se culpam transferret, relinendo — Leunclavium lib. vr, sibi arcem Cadmeam. (Pag. 609 5.) Siproperty and, deposited it in the hands 97) Seius, who was ignorant of the rime: ought Seius to restore it to the robber or to me? If we look only at the giver and, receiver, bona fides requires that the thing deposited should be restored to him who gave it. If we look at the equity of the whole matter, taking into account all the persons concerned, the property must be restored. to me, from whom it was most wrongfully taken. And he rightly adds: 7 «m of opinion that justice requires to give to each man his own in such a way, that it be not again to be transferred by the more just demand of another person. In fact, the claim of the owner is more just, in virtue of that right which we have spoken of as contemporary with ownership. And hence it follows, as we find in the same Try- phoninus, that he who in ignorance has received, as a deposit, a thing which is his own, is not bound to restore it: and the question dis- cussed a little before, concerning things deposited by him whose pro- perty had been forfeited, is to be decided on these grounds, rather than by the consideration which Tryphoninus adduces, of the utility of the punishment.
5 It makes no difference in the nature of ownership whether it arise jure gentium or jure civili: for it always has along with it the acecompaniments which are natural to it: among which is the obliga- tion of every possessor to restore a thing to its owner. And this is Act. Rer. mot.
de Furt.
De Offic. iii. 5b. Vid. L. Reg. Jur. et ibi Interp. Immo ibid.
22 DE OBLIGATIONE QUZE [118. II.
sunt naturalia, inter quse est obligatio eujusvis possessoris ad rem domino restituendam. Et hoe est quod ait Martianus, jure gentium condici posse res ab his, qui non ex justa causa possident.
Ex hoe fonte oritur illud quod ab Ulpiano est proditum, qui rem alienam invenit, eum ita ad eam domino reddendam teneri ut εὕρετρον, hoc est, preemium inventionis petere non possit. Reddendi autem sunt et fructus salvis impensis.
IL. 1 De rebus non exstantibus hoc humano generi pla- . cuit, ut si tu ex re mea factus es locupletior, me rem non "habente in tantum, tenearis in quantum es factus locupletior: quia quatenus ex meo lucratus es, plus habes, cum ego minus habeam: introducta autem sunt dominia ad servandam sequalitatem, in eo scilicet, ut quisque suum haberet. * Contra naturam 6886, ai; Tullius, ex Aomíinis éncommodo suum augere commodum. — Et alibi: Zllud natura non patitur, ut aliorum spoliis nostras facultates, copias, opes augeamus.
2 Est hujus dicti tanta zequitas, ut multa hinc definiant jurisconsulti extra legum przseripta, semper ad ipsam sequi- € Contranaturam esseex hominis in- — confitemur inimicum, ut alter alterius commodo suum augere commodum] Cas- ^ letetur incommodo, siodorus x. 16. —.Hoc nosítris temporibus what Martinus says, that, jwre gentium, things may be sued for from him who possesses them without just cause.
From this source arises that which is delivered by Ulpian, that he who finds anything is so far bound to restore it to the owner, that he cannot demand a reward for finding it. Also the produce of the thing found is to be restored, saving the expense.
IL. 1 Concerning things not extant, this is the rule established by mankind (the jus gentium), that if you are made richer by some- thing which is mine, and which I am deprived of, you are bound to make restitution to the extent of your gain. For by what you have gained from my property, you have so much the more, and I the less. But ownership was introduced to preserve equality, that is, each having his own. So Cicero. [See.]
2 'lhis rule of equity extends so far that the jurists define many points by means of it, without applying rules of law, referring to equity as the plainest ground. "Thus a person is held responsible for the acts of a. servant whom he has set over ἃ shop, except he have warned people against trusting him. And even when he has given warn- ing, if the servant have only a share in the business, and if the surplus Car. X.] EX DOMINIO ORITUR. 23 tatem, ut evidentissimam, provocantes, Ex actu servi insti- L.Siquin, Tancip. toris tenetur qui przoposuit, ita nisi denunciaverit ne ei cre- » ΤΗΣ deretur: Αὐ etiam si sit facta denunciatio, et seryus ex eo ἐν contractu peculium habeat, aut in rem domini versum sit, replieabitur de dolo. Videtur enim, inquit Proculus, dolum malum facere, qui ev aliena, jactura, lucrum querat. Ubi doli mali vox id omne significat, quod naturali juri et zequitati repugnat.
Qui matre jubente pro fili defensore fidejussit, adver- L. Qvam. c.
ad SC. Vell. sus defensorem mandati actionem non habet, nec proprie ejus gessit negotium, quia contemplatione matris fidejussit: Atta- men ex Papiniani sententia dabitur actio negotiorum gestorum (utilis, ni fallor) in defensorem, quia pecunia fidejussoris liberatur.
Sie uxori quz. marito pecuniam donavit, quam ex lege L ux. Mar. posset repetere, datur condictitia aut utilis vindicatio in rem Doy: in int-rir ex pecunia comparatam; quia, inquit Ulpianus, locupletiorem esse maritum negari non potest: et hoc quzritur, quid ex re mulieris possideat.
Si consumseris nummos quos mihi meus servus surripue TE rat, peculiares putans, condictio eo nomine mihi adversus te 4e 4c Em. competit, quasi res mea ad te sine causa pervenerit.
of profit go to the master, his warning is not held good. For, says Proculus, Ae appears to act fraudulently (dolo malo) who tries to get gain by the loss of others (the servant's creditors); where dolus malus means anything contrary to natural right and equity.
If a friend, at the request of the mother, have advanced money for the son's agent, he has not properly an action against the agent, for commission discharged or work done; nor was it properly the agent's work which he did; for it was in regard to the mother that he gave his money; yet, according to Papinian, there will lie an (indirect) action for work done, against the agent, because he has been liberated from responsibility by the money of the friend.
If a wife have given money to her husband, which she could by law call back again, she has an action establishing her claim to that which has been bought with the money: for, says Ulpian, it cannot be denied that the husband is the richer by the proceeding: and there is to be an inquiry what he possesses which is his wife's.
If money, which my servant stole from me, you have spent, think- ing that it was his own property, I have an action against you, as if my property had come into your hands without any just title to it, 24 DE OBLIGATIONE QUZE [Lrs. II.
1.8. D. Pupilli non tenentur commodati secundum leges Romanas; tamen utilis actio dabitur, si pupillus locupletior factus sit.
I egeript Sic si aliena res pignori data, et a creditore vendita fuerit, Dis Pipwr. quantum ad creditorem, pro pretii accepti quantitate, libe- ratur debitor: quia, inquit Tryphoninus, ex quali quali obli- gatione, occasione debitoris redactum pretium sequius debitori proficiet, quam creditoris lucro cederet: sed emtori debitor tenebitur, ne ex aliena jactura lucrum sibi qu:rat: nam et si majores fructus à possessore creditor abstulisset, universos in quantitatem acceptos ferre deberet.
D s Similiter si eum debitore meo, non tanquam meo, sed F«.C'*. glenum debitorem putans egisti, οὖ mutuam ab eo accepisti pecuniam, obligaris, non quia pecuniam tibi credidi, (hoc enim nisi inter consentientes fieri non potest) sed quia pecunia mea, qu: ad te pervenit, eam mihi ἃ te reddi bonum et sequum est.
9 Posterres quoque juris interpretes ad facta similia Αραδ hsec recte producunt: nempe ut eujus latitantis bona venum 9? Non tenetur: quoniam, ut puto, fuisset. Id probavimus ad Caput Pv- ille, quamdiu fuit bonz fidei Possessor, FENDORFII jam indicatum: ubi videre secundum Legem Naturalem eadem poterit Lector, quomodo in plerisque plane jura habuit, ac si verus Dominus — casuum sequentium alias regulas tra- Wards are not bound to repay loans according to the Roman Law; yet, if the ward thereby become richer, an indirect action will lie.
If a debtor pledge a thing belonging to another, and it be sold by the creditor, the debtor is relieved, in respect to the creditor, to the extent of the price received for the thing: because, says Tryphoninus, whatever be the kind of obligation which the debtor has, the price paid in consequence of the debtor's proceeding, may more equitably go to the debtor's profit, than to that of the creditor. But the debtor will be bound to the buyer, because he is not to gain by another's loss. If the creditor had taken a greater part of the produce than would pay him, he would have to account for the whole which he had received.
In like manner, if you dealt with my debtor, not as thinking him indebted to me, but to another person, and borrowed money of him, you are bound to me; not because I have entrusted money to you; (for this cannot be done without mutual consent;) but because my money, which has made its way to you, it is fair and equitable that you should render to me.
3 The later jurists extend these principles to other similar cases: for instance, that if a person have absconded and his goods have been Car. X.] EX DOMINIO ORITUR. 25 ierant, cum exceptionem haberet, is ad pecuniam ex bonis suis redactam admittatur; et ut qui pecuniam patri credidit ad alendum filium, si pater solvendo non sit, in ipsum filium bona materna habentem actionem habeat.
His regulis duabus recte intellectis, non difficilis erit responsio ad eas qusstiones quz et a Jurisconsultis, et a Theologis internum animi tribunal instruentibus, proponi solent.
IIT. Primum enim apparet, bons» fidei possessorem (nam / malz» fidei possessor, ultra rei rationem, ex facto suo tenetur) non teneri ad ullam restitutionem si res perierit: quia nec res ipsa apud eum est, nec lucrum ex re.
IV. Secundo, bonz fidei possessorem teneri ad restituen- dos?etiam fructus exstantes rei: dico fructus rei; nam indus- trie fructus etiam si sine re non procederent, rei tamen non debentur. Causa hujus obligationis est ex dominio: nam qui dominus est rei, idem naturaliter dominus est fructuum rei.
V. Tertio, bonz fidei possessorem teneri ad restitutionem damus, e principio simplicissimo et sentiant, et difficultatibus plurimis ob- facillimo fluentes; quum definitiones — noxiesint. J. P. Auctoris nostri satis inter se non consold, when he had a case which would have protected them, he is to be admitted to the money raised by the sale: and he who has lent money to support the son, if the father be insolvent, and the son have maternal property, has an action against the son.
These two rules being rightly understood (for extant and non- extant property), the answer will not be difücult to the questions which are wont to be proposed by Jurists and by Theologians, writ- ing for the instruction of the internal tribunal of the mind.
III. In the first place, it appears that a bona fide possessor is not bound to any restitution, if the thing be destroyed; for he neither has the thing nor any gain from the thing: [a mala fide possessor is bound by his own act, besides the consequences of wrong doing.]
IV. Secondly, a bona fide possessor is bound to restore also the still extant produce of the thing: I say the produce of the /hing; for the produce of industry, even if it would not take place without the thing, is not due to the thing. ^ The cause of this obligation is ownership: for he who is owner of a thing is naturally owner of the fruits of the thing.
V. "Thirdly, that a bone fide possessor is bound to restitution both of the thing aud of the produce of it consumed by him, if in any case he would have consumed as much: for by so much he is Jason. Zn d. 1. si me et Tit.
Soto, 1. iv. q. Z£:8rb ὦ, Covar. ad c. Pecc. par. 11.
Silv. in Verb. Restit. n, 3.
6. Medina de Contr. q. 10. Less. ii. 14, Navar. 17.n.7 26 DE OBLIGATIONE QUZE [118, II.
et rei, et fructuum consumtorum, si modo alias quoque tan- tundem consumturus fuerat: nam in hoc locupletior censetur.
Sut.1. — Sie laudatur circa initia imperii C. Casar Caligula, quod qui- bus regna restituit, adjecit et fructus medii temporis.
VI. Quarto, non teneri eum ad restituendos fructus quos percipere neglexit: quia nec rem habet, nec quiequam quod rei loco succedit.
VIL Quinto, si talis possessor rem sibi donatam alii donaverit, non tener] eum nisi omnino etiam sine hac re do- naturus tantundem fuisset: tunc enim lucrum erit rei su: pepercisse. Vid. L. 48. VIII Sexto, si rem emtam vendiderit, non teneri, nisi kwt ^ quatenus forte pl diderit: quod si donatum vendiderit, Fwt,, Quatenus forte p uris vendideri quo si donatum vendideri Ῥεῖ. Her. L. teneri ad restituendum pretium, nisi forte prodegerit pretium, LE D5* alas non prodacturus. IX. 1 Septimo, rem alienam bona fide emtam restituen- ONCE dam, nec posse erogatum pretium repeti: cui regule haec Evict. d Nisiquatenus dominus reisue pos- Τὰ nunc reddendum est illi: neque tu scilicet sessionem recipere sine impendio aliquo — E? E cd quid mea? num mihi da- probabiliter non potuit] Apud 'Teren- iure i b r Num jussi? num illa oppignerare filiam tium Jeautontimorumeno Act.1v. SCeDà — weam me invito potuit? verum illud, Chreme, Iv. (vers. 42. et seqq.) Dicunt: jus summum szpe summa est malitia. Sed illud quod tibi Dixi de argento quod ista debet Bacchidi; Ubi et Eugrafium vide. Hic zquitas held to be richer. And accordingly Caligula is praised for having, in the beginning of his reign, when he restored governments to per- sons, given them also the income of the interval elapsed.
VI. Fourthly, a bona fide possessor is not bound to restore the produce which he neglected to take; for he neither has the thing, nor anything which has come into its place.
VII. Fifthly, if a bona fide possessor has given to another a thing. given to himself, he is not bound to restitution, except, in any case, without having this thing, he would have given something of equal value: for then he has gained by sparing his own property.