f Circa voces consumitur] Extra gustinus contra academicos: turpe dis- putantibus in verborum questione immo- rari, cum certamen nullum de rebus re- manserit. (Cap. 2.)
oppose insurmountable obstacles.
So Sopater, Cicero, Dio Pruszensis, Favorinus.
XXIII These cases may occur: that punishment may require absolutely to be exacted, as in crimes of very bad example;—or may be fit not to be exacted, as if the publie good require it to be omit- ted;—or either course may be allowable: when, as Seneca says, Cle- mency has free will. "Then, say the Stoies, the wise man spares, but does not pardon: as if we might not, with common usage, call that par- don, which they call sparing. In fact here and elsewhere, as Cicero, Galen and others have noted, a great part of the disputations of the Stoies is about words, which a philosopher ought carefully to avoid. So the writer to Herennius and Aristotle say.
XXIV. 1 There seems to be a greater difficulty, after the penal law is instituted; because the author of the law is in a certain De Ira Dei, De Clem. i. 5.
288 DE POENIS. [Lir. II. nalem, quia legis auctor aliquo modo legibus suis obligatur; sed hoe diximus verum esse *quatenus auctor legis ut pars civitatis spectatur, non qua civitatis ipsius personam atque auctoritatem sustinet. Nam qua talis est potest leryem etiam totam tollere, quia legis human: natura est, ut a voluntate humana pendeat, non in origine tantum, sed et in duratione. Non debet tamen legis auctor legem tollere, nisi probabili de causa, peccaturus alioqui in regulas justitiz:e gubernatricis.
2 Sicut autem totam legem tollere potest, ita et vineu- lum ejus circa personam aut factum singulare, manente de cetero lege, Dei ipsius exemplo, qui Lactantio teste, legem cum poneret, non utique ademit sibi omnem potestatem, sed habet ignoscendi licentiam. " Imperatori, inquit Augustinus, licet. revocare. sententiam, et reum mortis absolvere et ipsi ignoscere: causam explicat, quia non est subjectus legibus qui habet in potestate leges ferre. Seneca Neronem hoc vult cogitare: Oecidere contra legem memo non potest: ser- vare nemo preter me.
38 Sed hoc quoque faciendum mon est nisi eausa subsit € Quatenus auctor legis ut pars civi- tatis spectatur] Vide qu:e supra in textu et notis hoc libro c. iv. S 12.
h Imperatori licet revocare senten- tiam] Symmachus, Lib. x. epist. 63.
quorum corrupte videntur esse sententic si sint legibus mitiores: alia divorum principum potestas, quos decet acrimo- niam severi juris inflectere. Idem dis- crimen inter regem et judicem est apud Alia enim est conditio magistratuum, — '"Themistium, oratione v. [Or. xvmr.
way obliged by his own law; but this, as we have said, is true so far as the author of the law is considered as a part of the State, but not so far as he bears the character and authority of the State. For in that capacity, he may rescind the whole law, because the nature of human law is, that it depends on human will, not only in its origin, but in its duration. But yet the author of the law ought not to abolish it, except for a probable cause, since otherwise he offends against the rules of governmental justice.
2 But as he may take away the whole law, so may he remove its obligation with regard to a particular person or fact, the law for the rest remaining; following the example of God himself, who, as Lactantius says, when he established the law did mot deprive himself of the power of pardon. So Augustine, and Seneca in the character of Nero.
3 But this also is not to be done except there be a probable cause. What are probable causes, although it cannot be precisely defined, yet we must hold by this, that they ought to be greater Car. XX.] DE PENIS. 289 probabilis: qu: autem sint cause probabiles, quanquam non potest przcise definiri; tenendum tamen est, majores esse debere post legem, quam quz» ante legem spectabantur, quia legis auctoritas, quam servari utile est, ad causas puniendi accessit.
XXV. Cause autem liberandi aliquem a pcena legis solent esse aut intrinsecz, aut extrinsecz. Intrinseca, cum si non injusta, dura tamen est poena ad factum comparata.
XXVI. Extrinseca, ex merito aliquo, aut alia re com- mendante: aut etiam spe magna in posterum: quod causz genus tunc maxime sufliciet, si ratio legis saltem particulari- ter cesset in facto de quo agitur. Nam quanquam ad susti- nendam legis efficaciam satis est ratio universalis sine repug- nantia contrariz rationis,!tamen cessatio rationis, etiam quae particularis est, efficit ut lex facilius et minore cum damno auctoritatis solvi possit. Id autem maxime usu venit in iis delietis qu;e per ignorantiam, quamvis culpa omni non caren- tem, aut per animi infirmitatem superabilem quidem sed diffi- culter superabilem, committuntur: ad qua Christianus homipag.227, 228. Ed. Harduin. Locus, Opp. Aug..Ed. Benedictin.]
qui tamquam ex Augustino adfertur, non est illius Patris, quamquam millies sub ipsius nomine laudatus, et a multis Auctoribus; sed illius qui Questiones Vet. et IN. Testamenti scripsit, Quaest.
,) Tamen cessatio rationis, etiam qua particularis est, efficit ut lex facilius et minore cum damno auctoritatis solvi possit] Multa ad hane rem utilia con- gessit Gratianus causa 1. quzstione 7.
De Fato 115. Appendice. Tom. rrr.
after the law, than were regarded before the law; because the authority of the law, which it is important to preserve, has been added to the other causes of punishment.
XXV. The causes of liherating any one from the punishment of the law, are commonly either intrinsic or extrinsic: an intrinsic cause is when the punishment, though not unjust, is severe compared with the fact.
XXVI. An extrinsic cause of remission of punishment is that which arises from some merit or other thing commending the offender to mercy; or from a great hope of him in future; which kind of cause will then be of most avail, if the reason of the law, at least in a particular point, ceases as to the fact in question. For although to sustain the efficacy of the law, the universal reason suffices, there being no repugnant contrary reason; yet the cessation of the reason for the particular case, effects that the law may be more easily, and with less loss of authority, loosened. And this happens most in 19 [cRor. rr.]
19 [cRor. rr.]
Lib. i. 26. et 290 DE PCENIS. [Lir. II.
num rector maxime respicere debet, ut Deum imitetur, qui in veteri quidem federe multa talia hostiis quibusdam expiari voluit. Levit.iv. et v. at in novo federe verbis et exemplis testatus est se ad talia resipiscentibus condonanda esse facilem. Lucem xxii. 34; Hebr. iv. 15, v. 2; 1 Timoth. i. 18. Et quidem illis Christi apud Lucam verbis, condona illis, Pater, quia nesciunt quid faciant, Fadductum "Theodosium ut An- tiochenis ignosceret, notat Johannes Chrysostomus, XXVII. Atque hinc apparet quam male Ferdinandus Vasquius dixerit, justam causam dispensandi, id est lege sol- vendi, esse eam tantum de qua legis auctor consultus dixisset, extra mentem suam esse eam observari. Non distinxit enim inter ἐπιείκειαν, quee legem interpretatur, et inter relaxatio- nem. Unde et alibi Thomam et Sotum reprehendit, quod dicant legem obligare etiamsi causa particulariter cesset, quasi legem esse putassent solam scripturam, quod illis nun- quam in mentem venit, Tantum vero abest ut omnis legis relaxatio, quz szpe libere et dari et omitti potest, referenda sib ad ἐπιείκειαν proprie dictam: ne illa quidem relaxatio k Adductum Theodosium] Historiam ^ xxiv. hujus Libri, $ 3. num. 1 in Not.), vide apud Zonaram. (Lib. xir, cap. 18. | Puniendus nemo est ultra meritum] Confer qua Auctor adfert infra, cap. ^ Bene hac de re disserunt Mediolanenses those offenses which are committed through ignorance, though not free from all fault; or through infirmity of mind, superable indeed, but yet diffücultly superable. ΤῸ these, the Christian ruler ought mainly to look, that he may imitate God, who in the Old Testament gives testimony by word and by deed that he is indulgent in forgiv- ing such. [See the passages.] And that by those words of Christ, Father, forgive them; for they know not wkat they do, 'Theodosius was moved to pardon the Antiochians, is noted by John Chrysostom. XXVII. And hence it appears how ill Vasquius said, that a just cause of dispensing with, that is of relaxing the law, was such alone as one about which, if the author of the law had been consulted, he would have said that it was not in his mind to have it observed. Here he has not distinguished between the equity which inter- prets the law, and ἃ relaxation of it. And on this ground he else- where reproaches Thomas Aquinas and Sotus, for saying that the law obliges, even though the cause in particular ceases, as if they had thought that the law was only the written word, which never came into their minds. For so far is it from being the case that any relaxation of the law, which may often be freely either given Car. XX.] DE POENIS. 291 quae aut ex caritate aut ex justitia rectrice debetur, eo referri potest. Aliud enim est legem aut probabili aut etiam urgente causa tollere, aliud declarare factum ab initio mente legis non fuisse comprehensum. De tollendis pomis vidimus, de taxa- tione earum videamus.
XXVIII. Ex supra dictis apparet in poenis duo spectari, id ob quod, et cujus ergo. Ob quod, est meritum; cujus ergo, est utilitas ex poma.!Puniendus nemo est ultra meri- tum, quo ea pertinent qu: ex Horatio jam ante protulimus; et Ciceronis illud, est. pene modus sicut rerum reliquarum, et quedam mediocritas. Ideo poenam sestimationis nomine appellat Papinianus. Et Aristides Leuctrica secunda humanze nature? conveniens esse ait, ut in quoque crimine sit aliquid ultra quod vindieta procedere non debeat. Demosthenes vero, in epistola pro Lycurgi liberis, zequalitatem in pcena non ita nude spectandam ait, ut in ponderibus et mensuris, sed expenso proposito ac voto ejus qui deliquit. Intra meriti vero modum magis aut minus peccata puniuntur, pro utilitate.
in oratione quze apud Guieciardinum est quz hoc capite habuimus $ 11. et qux» libro xvii, (pag. 387, et seqq.) Confer ^ habituri sumus libro 111. cap. xi. S 1.
or omitted, is to be referred to equity, that even that relaxation which is due to charity or to governmental justice is not to be referred to that principle. For it is one thing to take away the law for a probable, or even for an urgent cause, and another to declare that the fact was from the beginning not comprehended in the mind of the law.
We have spoken hitherto of taking away punishments, let us now consider their apportionment.
XXVIII. From what has been said above, it appears that two things are regarded in punishments; for what, and on account of whom. For what, is a question of merit; on account of whom, is a question of the use of the punishment. No one is to be punished beyond his desert, as Horace and Cicero say: accordingly, Papinian calls punishment the valuation [of an offense]. Aristides says that it is suitable to nature that there should be some point beyond which punishment shall not proceed; Demosthenes says that equality of punishment [and crime] is not to be regarded nakedly as in weights and measures, but with estimation of the purpose and intention of the offender. Within the limit of this desert, crimes may be punished more or less, according to utility.
Epist. xv. ad Brut.
L. Sanct. 41. D. de Pon.
Leuctr. 1. p.
Orat. in Lib. iv. 30.
Ethic. Nic.
Steph. 1. p.
XXIX. 1 In merito examinanda veniunt "eausa qua impulit, causa quze retrahere debuit, οὐ persons idoneitas ad utrumque. Vix quisquam gratis malus est, aut si quem ma- litia propter seipsam delectat, is ultra modum humanum pro- cessit. Pars maxima ad peccandum dueuntur affectibus; ἡ ἐπιθυμία σνλλαβοῦσα τίκτει ἁμαρτίαν appetitus conci- piens parit peccatum. —Appetitus nomine jam et declinandi mali impetum comprehendo, qui maxime est naturalis, 3deoque inter appetitus honestissimus: unde quz mortis, carceris, doloris, aut summe egestatis vitand; causa injuste fiunt, maxime excusabilia videri solent.
2 Et hue illud Demosthenis pertinet: equum est, his qui, cum divites sint, mali sunt, magis irasci, quam his quos egestas impellit: nam apud humanitate utentes judices necessitas aliquid adfert venie, cum si qui in rerum αι entia, injusti. sunt, nihil habeant pretexti probabilis. Sie Acarnanas excusat Polybius quod, impendentis periculi re- spectu?, federis cum Grzecis in /Etolos initi leges non im- plessent. Aristoteles: ἑκουσίῳ μᾶλλον ἔοικεν ἡ ἀκολασία n J)olor autem hominem quasi extra se rapit| Vide egregiam comparationem furis et adulteri Proverbiorum vi. 90. e£ m Causa que impulit] Chrysostomus x. de Statuis: οὐ γὰρ δὴ πᾶν ἁμάρτημα aiv αὐτὴν φέρει κόλασιν ἀλλὰ πὰ εὐκατόρθωτα μείζονα ἡμῖν ἐπάγει τὴν πιμωρίαν" non enim omnis culpa eandem . penam meretur, sed graviorem illa que facile corrigi potuit. (Τότ. vr. p. 591.) Et in secunda oratione cur obscurum sit vetus testamentum, hine probat calum- niatorem pejorem esse scortatore, fure, homicida. (Tom. vr. pag. 667. Ed. Savil.)
? Parum adeurate hoc dicitur. In- spice locum, in ora libri a me distincte indicatum. J.B.
XXIX.
seqq.
ο ]deo plus habet voluntarii] Philo ad Decalogum: πάντα μὲν γὰρ τῆς Ψυ- χῆς πάθη χαλεπὰ, κινοῦντα kai σείοντα αὐτὴν παρὰ φύσιν, καὶ ὑγιαίνειν οὐκ ἐῶντα. χαλεπώτατον δ᾽ ἐπιθυμία" διὸ τῶν μὲν ἄλλων ἕκαστον θύραθεν ἐπει- σίον καὶ προσπίπτον ἔξωθεν, ἀκούσιον εἶναι δοκεῖ" μόνη δ᾽ αὐτὴ ἐπιθυμία τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐξ ἡμῶν λαμβάνει καὶ ἔστιν ἐκούσιος" omnes quidem animi perturba- tiones graves, ut que animum extra na- 1 In examining desert, these points come under consideration; the cause which impelled, the cause which ought to have with- held, and the fitness of the person to each. [First of the impelling cause.] Scearce any one is wicked for nothing: if there be any person whom wickedness delights on its own account, he has gone beyond the limits of humanity. The greater part of persons are led to sin by the affections: When desire hath conceived it bringeth forth sin, James i. 15. Under the name of desire, I include also the impulse to shun evil, which is most natural, and therefore the most decent of the appe- IPOD ABC IMPUnDL d: iRopet em o A amm Car. XX] DE PENIS. 293 τῆς δειλίας" ἡ μὲν γὰρ δ᾽ ἡδονὴν, ἡ δὲ διὰ λύπην. καὶ ἡ μὲν λύπη ἐξίστησι, καὶ φθείρει τὴν τοῦ ἔχοντος φύ- σιν" ἡ δὲ ηδονὴ οὐδὲν τοιοῦτον ποιεῖ, μᾶλλον δὲ ἑκού- cioy* magis voluntaria est. incontinentia, quam timiditas: nam illa voluptatis ergo, hec propter dolorem. ἢ Dolor autem hominem quasi extra se rapit, nature exitium ad- Jerens: voluptas nihil tale, *ideo plus habet wvoluntarü. In eundem sensum insignis est Plocus apud Porphyrium, de non esu animalium libro tertio.
9 Ceteri appetitus ad bonum aliquod tendunt, aut ve- rum, aut imaginabile. "Vera bona extra virtutes et earum actiones qu: ad peccatum non dueunt (ἀντακολουθοῦσι “γὰρ αἱ ἀρεταὶ,?consentiunt enim virtutes inter se) sunt aut de- lectantia, aut delectantium causa, qua utilia vocantur, ut pos- sessionum abundantia. "?Imaginabilia non autem vere bona sunt, excellentia supra alios quatenus a virtute et utilitate sejungitur, οὐ vindicta: qu: quo magis a natura abeunt, eo sunt fediora. Et hos tres appetitus Johannes his vocibus exprimit: ἐπιθυμία σαρκὸς, ἐπιθυμία τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν, ἀλα- turalem statum moveant atque concuti- — Xovos αἰτίας, ὥσπερ ὑπὸ πληγῆς xa- ant, [neque sanum esse sinant] sed om- nium harum gravissima est cupido: nam cetera, quia extrinsecus ad nos impetum Jaciunt nosque pulsant, videntur velut in- vitis evenire: at sola cupido, utpote ex λεπωτέρας, ἀνατραπέντα" Commovens animum causa. plus excusationis ei pre- stat, qui ex graviore causa, velut ictu validiore, evertitur. (Pag. 58 A.)
? Axioma Stoicorum, apud Drocrznobis intus ortum habens, magis spontis esse nostre videtur. (Pag. 764 c.)
P Locus apud Porphyrium] Et simi- lis apud M. Antoninum de vita sua libro n.(S 10..Ed. Gatah.) ubi iram et cu- piditatem inter se confert. Plutarchus Romulo:: δὲ κινήσασα πὸν θυμὸν ἀρχι μᾶλλον παραιτεῖται τὸν ὑπὸ μείtites.
NEM LaERTIUM, Lib. vir. $ 125.
3 Imaginabilia non autem vere bona sunt] Seneca Epist. xvi. naturalia de- siderio finita sunt: ex falsa opinione nascentia, ubi desinant, non habent. Vide Chrysostomum in tractationibus morali- bus ad Rom. vi. ad ir. Cor. xi. 12. ad Ephes. i. 14.
Hence what is done wrongly to avoid death, imprisonment, pain, or extreme want, is commonly held most excusable. 2 And so Demosthenes, Polybius, Aristotle, Porphyry. 3 Other appetites tend to some good, either imaginary or real.
True good, is, besides the virtues and their actions which do not tend to sin, either things which delight, or the cause of delight, which is called utility, as abundance of possessions. Imaginary goods, not real, are superiority over others, so far asit is separate from virtue and utility, and revenge. These three appetites St John calls t/e lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life. 'The first compre- Cap. 5.
294 DE PGINIS. [Lin. II.
ζονεία τοῦ βίου. Primum enim membrum voluptatem desi- deria, secundum habendi cupiditatem, tertium van: glorise consectationem et iracundiam complectitur. Philo in Deca- logi explicatione omnia mala esse dicit, ἐξ ἐπιθυμίας ἢ xpn- μάτων ἢ δόξης ἢ ἡδονῆς. Lactantius libro sexto: vertus est iram, cohibere, cupiditatem compescere, libidinem refremare. Nam fere. omnia quc fiunt injuste atque improbe, ab his oriuntur affectibus: quod et alibi repetit.
XXX. 1 Causa, que a delinquendo abstrahere debet, generalis est injustitia. Versamur enim non in quibusvis peccatis; sed in iis quze respectum habent extra peccantem. Injustitia eo est major quo majus alteri damnum infertur. Ideo primum locum obtinent delicta consummata, postremum qui ad actus aliquos sed non ad ultimum processerunt: in quibus tanto quidque est gravius, quo ulterius processit. In utrovis genere ea injustitia eminet, quae communem ordinem perturbat, ac proinde plurimis nocet. Sequitur ea quz sin- gulos tangit. Maxima hie est qus vitam: proxima quz r Interdum et aliud accedit vitium] ^ nos amandare voluerunt. Est quidem Vide locum insignem in Lues verbis apud Xiphilinum ex Dione. [In Editio- nibus przecedentibus, loco vocum illarum, Luce verbis, positum fuerat, Lucii vita. Nimirum Editores putaverant ita emen- dandum locum, quum mnescirent quid sibi vellet. Hi tamen simul monere de- buerant, quis sit ille Lucius, ad cujus heic mendum, sed in sola voce Luce: quod nos detexisse speramus. Nimirum in animo habuit Auctor, quod de Avidio Cassio dicit Marcus Antoninus, in Ora- tione ad Milites habita, ubi eo atrocio- rem esse ejus rebellionem demonstrat, quod violaverit jura amicitie, φιλίαν ὑπερβάντα. Vide reliqua, pag. 277 B.
Vitam, a Xiphilino scriptam, Auctorem — c..Ed. H. Steph. Sensus ille, ut quihends the desire of pleasure, the second, cupidity of having, the third, the pursuit of vain glory, and anger. Philo says that all evil comes of the desire of wealth, glory, or pleasure. X So Lactantius.
XXX. 1 [Second, of the withholding cause.] "The general cause which ought to withhold men from offending is justice. [Hence injustice is a measure of punishment.] "The injustice is the greater as the greater damage is done to any one. Therefore the first place belongs to consummated crimes; the next, to those which have proceeded to some acts, but not to the last; and among these, every- thing is the more grievous in proportion as it has gone further. In each class, that injustice has an eminent place which disturbs the common order, and therefore hurts the greatest number; that comes after, which affects individuals. The greatest offense here is that which affects life; the next, family, of which the foundation is matri- mony; the last, desirable objects, either directly by subtracting them, Car. XX.] DE PGNIS. 295 familiam, eujus fundamentum est matrimonium: postrema quze res singulas expetibiles spectat, sive directe subtrahendo, sive dolo malo causam dando damni.
2 Possunt hze ipsa subtilius dividi, sed quem indicavi- mus ordinem Deus in decalogo secutus est. Nam parentum nomine, qui naturales sunt magistratus, etiam alios rectores par est intelligi, quorum auctoritas societatem humanam con- tinet: sequitur interdietio homicidii: deinde matrimonii sanc- tia, inhibitis adulteriis: tum furta, et falsimonis: loco ultimo delicta inconsummata. — Inter causas autem abstrahentes non debet poni tantum qualitas ejus quod directe fit, sed et ejus quod secuturum probabile est, ut in incendio et perfosso aggere multorum summ:e calamitates et mortes etiam spec- tandz sunt.
3 Ad injustitiam, quam generalem causam posuimus, "in- terdum et aliud accedit vitium, puta impietas in parentes, in- humanitas in propinquos, ingratus animus in beneficos, quz augent delictum. Apparet quoque major pravitas?si quis vis videt, omnino ad rem, de qua agitur, facit. Auctor voluerat dicere in Marci verbis: sed incogitantia quadam, orta ex adfinitate nominum familiarium, qui- bus duo Evangelist:e gaudent, vel Auc- tor ipse, vel Exscriptor, Lucam pro Marco nobis obtulerunt, ut habent Edi- tiones vivo Auctore in lucem emissa, et illa etiam anni 1646. post obitum ejus s Siquis sepius deliquit] Τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἀγνοῆσαί ποτε τὰ kara τὸν βίον ἐστὶν ἀνθρώπου" τὸ δὲ ἐπὶ τοῖς αὐτοῖς πράγ- μασι πλεονάκις ἁμαρτάνειν, τέλεον ἐξεστηκότος τοῖς λογισμοῖς" ὅσῳ γὰρ πλείοσιν ἐλαττώμασι περιπεπτώκα- μεν, τοσούτῳ μείζονος τιμωρίας ἄξιοι τυχεῖν ὑπάρχομεν" aliquando ignorasse quod vita exigat, hominis est; at in iisprima, J. J.] dem rebus sepius aberrare, emotc est or by producing damage through wrong doing.
2 'These matters might be divided more subtilly; but the order which we have indicated is that which God has followed in the Deca- logue. [The fifth commandment includes duties to governors]; for by the name of parents, who are natural magistrates, other rulers also must be understood: then follows the interdiction of homicide; then the sanction of matrimony by the prohibition of adultery; then theft; then false witness; in the last place, sins unconsummated.
Among the withholding causes, ought to be put, not only the cha- racter of that which is directly done, but of that which will probably follow: as in setting fire to a house, or breaking down a dam, great calamity, and even deaths, are to be looked for.
3 To the injustice which we put as the general cause, there is often added some other vice, as impiety towards parents, inhumanity to- wards neighbours, ingratitude towards benefactors; which increases the Cap. xviii.
Lib. iii. 67.
Rom. vii, 13.
De Ver. Rel.
egpius deliquit: quia habitus mali actibus sunt pejores. Et hine intelligi potest quatenus natura szequum sit quod apud Persas fiebat, *ut vita anterior simul cum delicto in zestimatio- nem veniret. Id enim locum habere debet in his quibus alioqui non malis subito aliqua peccandi dulcedo subrepsit: non in his qui totum vite genus immutarunt, in quibus ipse Deus apud Ezechielem nullam se habere ait prioris vitze ratio- nem, quibusque adeo 'Thueydideum illud aptari potest: δὲ- πλασίας ζημίας ἄξιοί εἰσιν, ὅτι ἀντ᾽ ἀγαθῶν κακοὶ eye^yé- νηνται" dupliciter ponas merentur, eo quod ev bonis mali facti sunt. Quod et alibi dixit: ὅτε οὐκ ἐκ προσηκόντων ἁμαρτάνουσι" quia ipsos peecare minime decebat.
4 [Itaque optime Christian! veteres in poenis canonum sstimandis "non nudum delietum voluerunt aspici, sed simul vitze quod przeessit et quod sequitur; ut ex Ancyrana et alis Synodis videre est. Sed et lex posita adversus vitium specialem quandam malitiam veteri superaddit: quod ita docet Augustinus: */ex prohibens omnia delicta congeminat: non menlis: quo enim plura sunt in que in- cidimus delicta, hoc majorem penam commeremur. [Dzrop. Sic. e Lib. xxr. Eclog. 15.]
t Ut vita anterior simul cum delicto in estimationem veniret] Asinius Pollio: [apud Senece, Suasor. vr. paullo ante versus Corn. Severi] qua major pars vite atque ingenii stetit, ea judicandum de homine est. Cicero pro Sul. Omni- bus in rebus, judices, que graviores ma- joresque sunt, quid quis voluerit, cogita- rit, admiserit, non ex crimine, sed ex moribus ejus, qui arguitur, est ponde- randum. (Cap. 25.)
" Non nudum delictum voluerunt as- pici] Canon Ancyranus xxv. Chrysos- tomus ad rr. ad Corinthios, cap. ii. ὅθεν μανθάνομεν, ὅτι οὐ δεῖ μόνον πρὸς τὴν φύσιν τῶν ἁμαρτημάτων, ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς τὴν διάνοιαν καὶ τὴν ἕξιν τῶν ἁμαρτανόντων τὴν μετάνοιαν ὁρίζειν" unde discimus penitentie fines determi- nandos non sola delictorum natura in- specta, sed et propositi et moris eorum qui peccarunt. ('T'om. 111. p. 569.) Idem offense.
offended: because bad habits are worse than bad aets.
Also there appears a greater pravity, if any one has often And hence it may be understood how far that was by nature equitable, which was practised among the Persians, that the anterior life was taken into account along with the offense. That may be applied, where a per- son, not otherwise bad, has been overcome by some sudden tempta- tion: but not in those who have changed their whole course of life, in whom God says he will not regard the former life (Ezek. xviii. *). So "Thucydides.
4 'The ancient Christians, in assigning punishment by the canons, * 'The principal part of the passage rather refers (see v. 10) to the son being bad when the father has been a good man. 'W.
ΟΡ: XX.] DE PENIS. 297 enim simplev peccatum est non solum malum, sed etiam vetitum committere. Tacitus: δὲ velis quod nondum veti- tum est, *tàimeas ne vetere: at si prohibita impune transcen- deris, neque metus ultra, neque pudor est.
XXXI. 1 Persons aptitudo, aut ad considerandas causas avertentes, aut ad suscipiendos affectus incitantes, considerari solet in eorporis mixtura, zetate, sexu, educatione, cireumstan- tiis actus. Nam et pueri, et femine, et crassi ingenii homines, maleque educati, justi et injusti, lieiti et illieiti diserimina mi- nus habent cognita: et in quibus bilis przevalet, iracundi sunt, in quibus sanguis, ad venerem proni; tum vero huc Juventus, ilue senectus propendet. Andronieus Rhodius: φαίνεται τοί- νυν ὅτι ἀπολογίαν τινὰ δίδωσι τοῖς αἰσχροῖς, τὸ πεφυκέναι πρὸς αὐτὰ, καὶ ἀνεκτότερον ποιεῖ τὸ ἔγκλημα" videtur factis turpibus excusationis aliquid. adferre natura, et delictum efficere tolerabilius. —Metum accendit mali imminentis cogi- tatio, et iracundiam recens aec necdum sedatus dolor, ita ut ratonem audiri vix sinant: suntque illorum affectuum delicta ir. de Sacerdotio: οὐ γὰρ ἁπλῶς πρὸς τὸ τῶν παραπτωμάτων μέτρον δεῖ καὶ τὴν ἐπιτιμίαν ἐπάγειν. ἀλλὰ καὶ τῆς τῶν ἁμαρτανόντων στοχάζεσθαι προ- αἱρέσεως, non enim ad solam mensuram delictorum pena imponenda est, sed et inquirendum quis fuerit ejus qui peccavit animrs. (Tom. vr. pag. 10.)
* Ler prohibens omnia delicta conδόσεως" hic non tantum par jus digni- tatemque ostendit Jud«i et Greci, sed et Judeum hoc ipso pregravari quod le- gem acceperit. (Ad Roman. pag. 32. Tom. 111.) Deinde: ὁ γὰρ πλείονος dzro- λαύσας τῆς διδασκαλίας, μείζονα ἂν εἴη καὶ τιμωρίαν ἄξιος ὑπομεῖναι παρα- Nam qui plus institutionis ac- cepit, is majores etiam contemte legis νομῶν.
geminat] Bene Chrysostomus: ἐνταῦθα οὐ μόνον ἰσοτιμίαν δείκνυσι 'lovóoaíov penas meretur. (lbid. pag. 30.) * Locus iste Taciti, recte expensus, καὶ EAAgvos, ἀλλὰ καὶ πολὺ τὸν Ἴου- nmilad rem facit. J. B.
δαῖον βαρούμενον ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ νόμου rightly directed, not the naked delicet to be regarded only, bat at the same time the preceding and succeeding life. A law directed against a special sin, if violated, adds a degree of depravity to that which the sin by itself would not have. So Augustine, Tacitus.
XXXL 1 [Third, as to the aptitude of the person.] The apti- tude of the person, either to consider the withholding causes, or to feel the power of the impelling affections, may be considered as to his constitution, age, sex, education, and the ecireumstances of the act. For children, women, persons of dull intellect, ill educated persons, are less able to perceive the differences of just and unjust, of lawful and unlawful: those in whom bile prevails are irascible; those in whom blood, lustful; and youth tends to one of these WAYS; Ann. iii. 54.
Paraph. in. Eth. Nic. vii, Nic. vii. 7.
Cap. 6.
Apud Stob.
merito minus odiosa quam qu:e ex voluptatis nascuntur desi- derio, quod et minus eflicaciter movet, ct differri Yet aliam sibi materiam sine injuria quzrere facilius potest. Aristoteles ANicomachiorum septimo:: ὁ θυμὸς φυσικώτερον καὶ " χαλε- πότης τῶν ἐπιθυμιῶν τῶν τῆς ὑπερβολῆς καὶ τῶν μὴ ἀναγ- καίων; magis naturale ira et acerbitas quam cupiditas eorum qua modum excedunt minimeque sunt necessaria.
2 Omnino enim illud tenendum est, quo animi eligentis judicium magis impeditur, quoque magis naturalibus causis, eo quod delinquitur minoris esse. Aristoteles dieto libro: - μᾶλλον ἀκόλαστον ἂν εἴποιμεν, ὅστις μὴ ἐπιθυμῶν ἢ 7] ἠρέμα διώκει τὰς ὑπερβολὰς καὶ φεύγει μετρίας λύπας, ἢ τοιοῦτον ὅστις διὰ τὸ ἐπιθυμεῖν σφόδρα. τί γὰρ ἂν ἐκεῖνος ποιήσαιεν, εἰ προσγένοιτο ἐπιθυμία Veavik], καὶ περὶ τὰς ἀναγκαίων ἐνδείας λύπη ἰ ἰσχυρά" minus temperantem dicimus hunc, qui α΄ motu concupiscente aut non tentatus, aut leviter tentatus quarit enormes voluptates aut mediocria incommoda, defugit, eo qui vehementi affectu percellitur. Nam quid idem ille facturus fuisse putandus est, si adfuisset juvenilis quedam perturbatio animi, aut gravis dolor ex penuria eorum quibus negatis natura doleat?^ Quicum convenit illud Antiphanis: y Et aliam sibi materiam sine injuria — cilium enim facilis est venia. Quanto querere facilius potest] Chrysostomus ad Galatas; ἡ ἐπιθυμία μίξιν ἐπιζητεῖ μόνον, οὐ τοιάνδε μίξιν" cupido concu- bitum tantum querit, non hujus aut illius concubitum. (Tom.r.pag.7583.) Ter- tulianus libro ri. ad Üzorem: nam quanto grandis est continentia carnis que viduitati ministrat, tanto, si non susti- neatur, ignoscibilis videri potest: diffiautem nubere in Domino perpetrabile est, uti nostre potestatis, tanto culpabilius est non observare quod possis. (Cap. 1.) et mox, quanto potestas vitandi fuit, tanto contumacie crimine oneratur. (Cap. 11.) Adde M. Antoninum, loco modo indicato, ubi Theophrasto auctore uti- tur.
z Qui cum sit opulens nequiter quicage, the other.
Andronieus speaks of such palliations.
Then again fear is augmented by the thought of imminent danger; anger, by recent and still smarting vexation; so that they scarce suffer reason to be heard: and transgressions which thus arise are deservedly less odious than those which spring out of the desire of pleasure, which is both slower in its impulses, and may more easily be put off and led to seek other matter. Aristotle discusses this question, Eth. Nicom. VII. 7.
2 'This also is to be held, that in proportion as the judgment of the person choosing his course is more impeded, and by mere natural causes, the offense is less. So Aristotle in the same place. Anti- Car. XX] DE PENIS. 299 "Qui cum sit opulens nequiter quiequam facit, Hune, si esset pauper, quid non facturum putas? Et qua in senum amores passim in comceediis legimus, Ex his igitur causis zestimandum meritum intra quod poena consistere debeat.
XXXII. 1 Tenendum autem est quod Pythagorici dice- bant, justitiam esse ὅ τὸ ἀντιπεπονθὸς, id est, parem passionem in penis, id non ita accipi debere quasi qui alteri nocuit deli- berato et sine causis culpam valde minuentibus, tantundem nocumenti nec amplius ferre debeat. Id enim non ita esse ipsa lex, qu: legum omnium perfectissimum exemplar est, ostendit, cum furta quadruplo aut quintuplo vult lui. Et lege Attica fur, "ultra dupli condemnationem, per dies aliquot vinctus ha- bebatur, ut Demosthenes in Timocratem nos docet. eges, inquit Ambrosius, ea que detracta sunt alicui cum 4njuria persona aut rei ipsius cumulo restitui imperant, quo furem «a detrahendo aut poena deterreant, aut mulcta revocent. Aristides Leuctrica secunda: τοῖς ἐν δικαστηρίοις ἐπεξιοῦσι, τοῖς ἀδικήσασι μείζονα ἢ καθ᾽ ἃ πεπόνθασι δέδοται περὶ τῶν νόμων εἰς τιμωρίας λόγον" his qui judicio illatas sibi inju- rias persequuntur, majora leges permittunt pro vindicta quam facit] Chrysostomus de Provi- dentia 1v. [Immo v. pag. 878. Tom. v1.] ὥστε ὅταν ἴδῃς τὸν πλουτοῦντα ἀδι- κοῦντα, πλεονεκτοῦντα, ἁρπάζοντα, διὰ τοῦτο μάλιστα αὐτὸν στέναξον, ἐπειδὰν πλούσιος ὧν ταῦτα ποιεῖ. μεί- ζονα γὰρ δίδωσι τιμωρίαν" quare ubi divitem videris injustum, avarum, rapa- cem, hoc magis eum miserare, quod talia dives faciat. Ob id ipsum enim puni- etur gravius.
ἃ TO ἀντιπεπονθὸς] Ταυτοπάθεια -Harmenopulo. (Prompt. 110.1. ΤΊ, 2, b Ultra dupli condemnationem] ΑἹ- ludit hue locus Apoc. xviii, 6. Reddite duplum. Hercules Minyas, qui a 'The- banis sine jure tributum extorserant, duplum coegit ejus tributi pendere 'The- banis. Apollodorus Lib. rir. (cap. 3.
phanes; and old men in love, in comedies. And by these principles we must estimate the limiting amount of punishment according to desert.
XXXII. 1 We must remark that the doctrine of the Pythago- reans, that justice is a reciprocal proportion, is not to be so understood asif he who has deliberately and without extenuating causes, injured another, should himself receive so much harm, and no more. That this is not so, the Hebrew law shews, when it directs thefts to be punished by forfeit to four or five times the amount. ΒΥ the Attic Law, the thief, besides a fine of the double, was kept in bonds some days. So Ambrose, Aristides, Seneca.
Exod. xxii. 1.
Offic. iii. 3.
Lib. xv. p.
Deut. xix. 19.
300 DE PENIS. [Lan. II.
evigere, quam. quc ipsis acciderant. Seneca de judicio post hane vitam: Scelera taxantur modo Majore nostra.
2 ^Apud Indos, ut Strabo notat, qui quem mutilasset, supra talionem, manu truncabatur. Et in Magnis Moralibus que Aristotelis nomen przeferunt, legimus: ov δίκαιον, εἴ τις TOV ὀφθαλμὸν ἐξέκοψέ τινος, ἀντεκκοπῆναι μόνον, ἀλλὰ πλείονα παθεῖν" justum. est si quis oculum alteri. effoderit, non tantundem modo, sed et amplius patiatur. Nec enim zequum est ut par sit perieulum innocentis et nocentis, ut recte ostendit *Philo, quo loco de homicidii peena tractat. Atque hoe inde quoque:estimari potest, quod delicta quzedam *non consummata, οὗ ideo consummatis minora, nocumentum infligant par cogitato, quod in lege Hebrzea 'de falso teste proditum, et in lege Romana de eo qui hominis occidendi causa eum telo ambulavit. Cui consequens est ut perfectis eriminibus major respondeat pcona, sed quia morte nihil est. gravius, eaque ite- rari non potest, ut Philo notat dieto loco, ideo intra eam c Apud Indos] Apud Indorum alios € Non consummata, ei ideo consum- furtum niorte punitum notavit Nicolaus matis minora] Plinius de leone: Vul- Damascenus. neratus observatione mira percussorem 4 Philo] Secundo de Legibus Speci- ^ movit, et in quantalibet multitudine ap- alibus, (pag. 789. et seqq.) petit..Eum vero qui telum quidem mise- 2 Among the Indians, as Strabo notes, he who had maimed any one, besides retaliation, had his hand eut off. In Aristotle's Magna Moralia, If any one strike out the eye of another, it is just that he suffer mot so much only, but more. For it is not just that the danger of the guilty and of the innocent should be the same, as Philo shews, in treating of the punishment of homicide. And this may be esti- mated also by considering that some delicts not consummated, and therefore less than if they were consummated, bring down, as punish- ment, an evil equal to that meditated: as we read of the Hebrew law of false witness, and the Roman law against him who went about with a weapon to kill a man, From which it follows, that to the crime when consummated, a heavier punishment will correspond: but because nothing is heavier than death, and that cannot be reiterated, as Philo notes, the punishment is necessarily confined within those limits, sometimes adding tortures according to the desert.
XXXIII But the magnitude of the punishment is to be regarded, not nakedly only, but with respect to the patient. For the fine which will press down a poor man will sit lightly on a rich one: and to a Car. XX] DE PENIS. 301 necessario consistitur, additis tamen interdum pro merito cru- ciatibus.
XXXIIL — Pens autem magnitudo non tantum nude spectatur, sed cum respectu ad patientem. Nam mulcta eadem pauperem onerabit, divitem non onerabit: et vili ignominia leve erit malum, honorato grave: quo genere diversitatis szepe utitur lex Romana: unde harmonicam proportionem exstruxit Bodinus, eum tamen revera simplex hie sit et qualis in numeris sequalitas, meriti ad penam, sicut in contractibus mercis ad nummos, quanquam alibi merx eadem plus, alibi minus valet, itemque nummi. At fatendum, ssepe in lege Romana id non fieri ἄνευ προσωποληψίας, id est sine nimio personarum et qualitatum ad faetum non pertinentium respectu, a quo vitio longissime semper abest lex Mosis. Et hsec quidem, ut dixi- mus, intrinseca est pon: taxatio.
XXXIV. Sed intra concessum modum ad minimum ducit caritas ejus qui punitur, nisi plurium justior caritas aliud sua- deat ob causam extrinsecam, quz interdum est ingens pericu- lum ab eo qui deliquit, plerumque autem necessitas exempli.
rit, sed lamen non vulneraverit, correp- — lucraretur. Deut. xxii. 19. Et de eo ium raptatumque sternit, nec vulnerat. ^ qui ceteroqui ex causa injusta aliquem