3 In personam ejus cui juratur actus dirigi potest tol- lendo ab eo jus quod ei partum est; aut etiam, si jus desit, vetando ne quid ex tali juramento accipiat: idque duobus modis, sive in poenam, sive ob publicam utilitatem, ex vi su- pereminentis dominii Atque hinc intelligi potest, si jurans non ejusdem sit ditionis cum eo cui juratur, quid aut hujus aut illius rectores possint circa jusjurandum. — Ipse autem qui juratus aliquid promisit nocenti qua talis est, puta piratze, non potest jus promisso qusesitum poense nomine ob id ipsum ei auferre: quia tunc verba nullum haberent effectum, quod omnino vitandum est. Similique de causa compensari non poterit quod promissum est, cum jure quod ante erat contro- yersum, si post motam controversiam inita pactio fuerit.
4 Potest et lex humana impedimentum quod certi genecap. xi. ὃ 6. not. 3. tertite et quartze — patum notat Ferdinandus Vasquius de Editionis. J. B. Success. Creat. 1. τι. $ 18. (Apud Vas- 5. Olim a principibus] Suetonius Zi- ὀ quium nil tale reperio, nec in loco indi- berio 35. Sic et in Hispania diu usur- ^ cato, necalibi. J. B.]
of it. And on this ground may be defended the absoluiions from oaths which were formerly granted by princes; and are now, by the consent of princes, for the sake of piety, granted by the governors of the Church.
3 The act of the superior may be directed on the person of him to whom the oath is made, by taking from him the right which he has thus aequired: or even, if he have no right, by forbidding that he receive anything in virtue of such oath: and that, in two ways, either as ἃ penalty, or for public utility, in virtue of his Eminent Dominion. And hence it may be understood, if the swearer be not under the same subjection as the person sworn to, what the gover- nor of each may do in respect to the oath.
* He who on oath has promised anything to a mischievous person, as such, as for instance a robber, cannot take from him the promised right on the ground of penalty: for then his words would have no effect, which is by all means to be avoided.
In like manner what is promised cannot be given as a compensa- tion for a right which was in controversy before, if the agreement took place after the controversy began.
* These two rules refer to promises rather than oaths. 'W.
L. ult. ad mun. Molin. δὶ vero. de Jurejur.
Matt. v. 33.
Virg. Ecl. vii.
Ex Aquil. Rom. Antiq. Rhet. Lat.
106 DE JUREJURANDO. [Lir. II.
ris actibus posuerat, tollere, si juramentum aut qualecunque, aut certa forma accesserit: quod Romanz leges fecerunt in lis impedimentis, quse non directe publicam, sed privatam jurantis utilitatem spectant. Quod si fiat, valebit actus ju- ratus eo modo quo naturaliter citra legem humanam fuerat valiturus, aut fidem tantum obstringendo, aut jus etiam dando alteri, pro diversa actuum natura, quz alibi a nobis explieata est.
XXI. 1 Notandum hie est obiter, quod in Christi prze- ceptis οὐ apud. Jacobum de non jurando dicitur, proprie non ad assertorium juramentum, fecujus apud Paulum Apostolum exempla exstant aliquot, sed ad promissorium futuri incerti pertinere. Ostendit hoe evidenter oppositio illa in verbis Christi: eudistis dictum antiquis, non pejerabis, sed, reddes Domino juramentum. ἔσο vero dico vobis, Ne jurate omnino. Et ratio quam Jacobus adjicit: μὴ eis ὑπόκρισιν πέσητε, ld est, ne fallaces inveniamini: nam eum sensum vox ὑποκρίσεως apud Hellenistas habet, ut apparet Job. xxxiv. 90; Matth. xxiv. 51, et alibi.
2 Idem evincit illud in Christi verbis, ἔστω δὲ λόγος ὑμῶν, vai vai, οὗ ov, Quod sic Jacobus explicat, ἤτω δὲ ὑμῶν TO vai val, kai TO οὗ οὔ" ubi manifeste est figura quam πλοκὴν rhetores vocant, ut in illo: Ex illo Corydon Corydon est tempore nobis. Et in altero simili: ad illum diem Memmius erat Memmius. t Cujus apud. Paulum Apostolum 8: τ. 'Thess. ii. 55 1. Tim. ii. 7.
4 Human Law may take away the impediment which it had thrown in the way of certain acts, if an oath, either in general, or in a particular form, be introduced: which the Roman Law did in the case of those impediments which regard, not directly publie utility, but the private utility of the swearer. And if this be done, the act so sworn will be valid in the same manner as it would, without the Human Law, have been valid by Natural Law; either only by binding good faith, or by giving a right to another, according to the different nature of such acts, as already explained.
XXL 1 It is here to bo noted in passing, that what is said in the precepts of Christ, and in St James, of not swearing, does not properly apply to an oath of assertion, of which there are some examples in St Paul himself, but to an oath of promise with regard to an uncer- Car. XIII.] DE JUREJURANDO. 107 Nam prius ναὶ e£ ov promissum significat, posterius ejus im- plementum. Est enim vai promittentis: unde per ἀμὴν ex- plieatur Apoc. 1. 7, eundemque sensum habet quod hiec in Syriaco est, 'N respondens Rabbinieo |; et Arabieum e^ quomodo apud jurisconsultos Romanos μαάλισταἥ, et quidni ὃ not sunt respondentis ad stipulationem, Pro implemento pro- missionis sumitur apud Paulum 2 Corinth. i. 20, cum ait omnia Dei promissa in Christo esse vai καὶ ἀμήν. Hine vetus Hebr»orum dictum, *justi hominis vai est vai, et non est non.
3 Contra, quorum facta a dictis discrepant, apud eos esse dieitur ναὶ kai ov, 2 Corinth. i. 18, 19, id est, ναὶ eorum esse ov, et ov esse vat. Sic Paulus Apostolus ipse exponit: nam cum megasset se ἐλαθρίᾳ χρήσασθαι, levitate usum, addit sermonem suum non fuisse ναὶ kat ov. Festus varias referens sententias de significatione vocis naucum, sic scribit: quidam (aiunt) ex greco "vai kai οὐχὶ levem hominem sig- nificari. Quod si vai kat ov levitatem significat, sequitur, vai vai, οὐ ov, constantiam significet.
4 Idem ergo dicit Christus quod *Philo: κάλλιστον καὶ βιωφελέστατον καὶ ἁρμόττον λογικῇ φύσει τὸ ἀνώμοτον, οὕτως ἀληθεύειν ἐφ᾽ ἑκάστου δεδιδωγμένῃ, ὡς τοὺς λό- ους ópkovs εἶναι νομίζεσθαι" | Optimum atque utilissimum et rationali nature convenientissimum est juramento abs- 4 Reperiturapud DuxTORF1UM,70- | merum: id enim ad vocem nauci pro- rileg. pag. 329. J. B. pius accedit. " Nai kai οὐχὶ] Recte in hoc Festi x Philo] De decalogo.
loco scripseris οὐκὲ, ut szepe apud Hotain future. "This plainly appears in the words of Christ, Matth. v: and in the reason which St James adds, v. 12, lest ye fall into condemna- tion, ὑπόκρισιν, is, lest ye be found fallacious. See the passages.
2 'The same is proved by the words of Christ, Let yowr words be gea, yea, and nay, nay: which St James explains, Let your yea be yea, and your nay, nay: that is, let your yec mean a sincere consent, and your παν a resolute refusal. Seo the illustrations.
3 On the contrary, those whose acts are at variance with their words are those whose word is yea and nay, 1 Cor. i. 18, 19, that is, their yez is nay, and their nay is yea: as St Paul himself explains. See Festus's etymology of naucum.
4 "Therefore Christ said the same thing as Philo, that the best thing is that our word should be as our oath. So the Essenes, accord- ing to Josephus.
De Decal.
Antiq. Jud.
Diog. Laert. viii. 22.
Lib. vii. 8.
Apud Diog. Laert. i. 60.
108 DE JUREJURANDO. [118. II.
tinere, atque ita se veracitati assuefacere, ut verba pro juramento accipiantur. Et alibi: ὁ τοῦ σπουδαίου λόγος ὅρκος ἔστω βέβαιος, ἀκλινὴς, ἀψευδέστατος" Viri boni oratio pro juramento sit. firmo, immutabili, fallere nescio: οὐ quod de Essenis Josephus: πᾶν τὸ ῥηθὲν UT αὐτῶν ἰσχυρότερον ὅρκου, τὸ δὲ ὁ ὀμνύειν αὐτοῖς περιίσταται" Quic- quid dixerint validius est jurejurando: ac supervacua res ipsis habetur jurare.
5 Ab Essenis, aut Hebrzorum ilis quos secuti sunt Esseni, videtur hoc sumsisse ^Pythagoras, cujus hzc senten- tia: μὴ ὀμνύναι Θεούς᾽ ἀσκεῖν γὰρ avrov δεῖν ἀξιόπιστον παρέχειν" non jurandwum per Deos: quemque enim id. cu- rare debere, "ut nec jurato sibi credatur. Scythse de se ad Alexandrum Curtio referente: Jurando gratiam Scythas sancire ne credideris: colendo fidem jurant. Cicero pro Roscio Comedo: Que pena «a Diis immortalibus perjuro, h«c eadem mendaci constituta, est. |. INon enim ex pactione verborum quibus jusjurandum comprehenditur, sed ex per- fidia et malitia, per quam insidie tenduntur alicui, Dii immortales hominibus irasci et succensere consuerunt. | So- lonis dietum celebratur: καλοκαγαθίαν ὅρκου πιστοτέραν ἔχε" Ea esto probitate, ut ei magis quam juramento crey Etalibi] De specialibus legibus * Pythagoras] Nam et Hermippus Pythagoricus Pythagor:x Philosophiam ab Hebrzis ductam dicebat, teste Ori- gene contra Celsum. (Lib. 1. pag. 13. -Ed. Cant.) Ydem et Josephus Hebrzus prodidit, οὐ Jamblichus Pythagoricus. [Locus Josephi exstat Lib. 1. contra Apion. S 22. Edit. Oxon. Verum pro- babile admodum est, legendum ibi non ᾿Ιουδαίων, sed ᾿Ιδαίων, ut conjecit Vir Eruditissimus ΖΦ. Clericus, Tom. x. Biblioth. Selecte, pag. 162, et seqq.
Quod spectat Jamblichum, voluit Auc- tor dicere Porphyrium: hic enim ex Diogene lib. de Zncredibilibus refert, Pythagoram, inter alios, Hebrzos etiam invisisse, et ab iis hausisse quzedam Phi- losophix suce dogmata, de Vita Pythag. 8 11..Ed. Kusteri. Apud Jamblichum autemnil tale reperitur. J. B.]
à Ut nec jurato sibi credatur] Philo (De Decal. pag. 156 c.) Ἤδη ydp ὅγε ὀμνὺς εἰς ἀπιστίαν ὑπονοεῖται" enim is, a quo jusjurandum exigitur, per- Jidice est suspectus. Sophoclis GZdipode Coloneo dixerat CEdipus: 5 Pythagoras seems to have taken this from the Essenes, or those who followed the Essenes.
His precept is, Vot to swear by the Jam.
gods, for yow ought to act so that sen believe ow without an oath: so the Scythians in Curtius: so Cicero for Roscius; Solon; Clemens Alexandrinus; Alexis the Comie Poet. Cicero relates that at Athens, when a certain man, noted for his holiness and gravity, had to give his testimony, and approached the altar to swear, the judges with one Car. XIII.]
Car. XIII.]
« datur. Clemens quoque Alexandrinus dixit viri boni esse, strom. vii. 8, TO πιστὸν τῆς ὁμολογίας ἐν ἀμεταπτώτῳ καὶ ἐδραίῳ δεικνύειν βίῳ τε καὶ λόγῳ' Fidem promissi ostendere iu verborum ac vite stabilitate et constantia. Alexis Comicus: DE JUREJURANDO. 109 Apnd Stob. Serm. 27.
Ὅρκος βέβαιός ἐστιν ἂν νεύσω μόνον. Nutus mei pro jurejurando valent.
Narrat Cieero oratione pro L. Cornelio Balbo, Athenis cum quidam apud eos qui sancte graviterque vixisset, et testimo- nium publice dixisset, et jurandi causa ad aras accederet, una voce omnes judices ne is juraret reclamasse; eo quod nol- lent religione videri potius quam veritate fidem esse con- strictam.
6 AÀ Christi dicto non discrepat Hieroclis illud ad au- reum carmen: o céBov à ὅρκον ἐν ἀρχῇ παραγγείλας, τὴν ἀποχὴν τοῦ ὀμνύναι προστάττει περὶ τῶν ἐκδεχομένων, καὶ ἀόριστον τῆς ἐκβάσεως ἐχόντων τὸ πέρας. ταῦτα γὰρ καὶ μικρὰ καὶ μεταπίπτοντα, διὸ οὔτε ἄξιον em αὐτοῖς ὀμνύναι, οὔτ᾽ ἀσφαλές. Qui in principio dixerat, Jusju- randum reverere, eo ipso preceperat abstinere a jurando de his "que possunt fieri et non fieri, et. incertum habent casus exitum. T'alia enim et parvi ducenda sunt, et Οὔτοι σ᾽ ὑφ᾽ ὅρκου γ᾽ ὡς κακὸν πιστώσομαι, — sitatem: quod si scis fore ut mentiatur, Nolo te adigere jurejurando ut malum.
respondet Theseus: Οὔκουν πέρα γ᾽ ἂν οὐδὲν ἢ λόγῳ φέροις.
Nec plus haberes inde quam vocis sonum. M. Antoninus in viri boni descriptione: μήτε ὅρκου δεόμενος" nec opus habens jurejurando, (Lib. 111. $ 5.) Chrysost. de Statuis Xv. εἰ μὲν πιστεύεις ὅτι ἀληθής ἐστιν ὁ ἀνὴρ, μὴ ἐπαγάγῃς τοῦ ὅρκου τὴν ἀνάγκην. εἰ δὲ οἷδας ὅτι ψεύδεται, μὴ ἀναγκάσῃς ἐπιορκεῖν" Si credis ve- racem esse eum, quicum tibi negotium est, noli ei jurisjurandi imponere necesne coge eum et pejerare. ('Tom. vr. pag. 566. Edit. Savil.)
b Que possunt fieri et non fieri] Bene hoc animadvertit Chrysostomus de Sta- tuis [Orat. xiv. Tom. vr. pag. 553]: ὅτι κἂν μὴ συναρπασθεὶς, μηδὲ ἄκων, μηδὲ ἀγνοῶν τοῦτο πάθῃ, ὑπ᾽ αὐτῆς τοῦ πράγματος φύσεως, καὶ ἑκὼν καὶ εἰδὼς ἀναγκασθήσεται ἐπιορκῆσαι πάν-- τως" Etiamsi non eveniat id tibi quod impetu abreptus, aut coactus, aut nec co- gitans juraveris, ipsa negotii natura id interdum secum feret, ut et volens et sci- ens falsum jurasse deprehendaris, Et voiee refused to have the oath administered, his character being guarantee sufficient.
6 The maxirms of Hierocles on the Golden Poem are not different, He who said, Reverence an oath, by that very precept. enjoined. yow to abstain from swearing with regard to future uncertain matters. Such it is neither worthy mor safe to swear.
About So Libanius in praising the Christian Emperors: Eustathius on the Odyssee.
Lib. xiv. v.
Can. in c. quer. de Jjurejur.
Pan. in c. ad lere. aures. De his que vi vel met. caus. Jas. in 1. iii. ὃ Jur. D. de ;, rino [Lib. xi. vers. 511]: jurejur.
M yns.obs.1l Plut. in Eum.
DE JUREJURANDO.
mutabilia sunt, unde nec dignum de dis jurare, nec tutum.
Et Libanius in Christiani Imperatoris laudibus ponit: ὧστε καὶ κίας ποσουτον αποστατῶων, ἐπιορ- πρὸς τὰς evopkias ἔχειν εὐλαβῶς" « perjurio tantum abest, ut etiam vera jurare wvereatur. ἤτοι ὅρκον μὲν ἐάσομεν" Eustathius ad illud Odyssee E E: ἄλλ. sic ait: ov ρεία ὅρκου ἐν τοῖς ἀδήλοις πρὸς βεβαίωσιν, ἀλλ᾽ εὐχῆς πρὸς ἀποτέλεσμα" In rebus incertis non. ad. asseverationem juramentum adhi- bendum, sed preces pro bono exitu.
XXII.
Ideo multis in locis vice jurisjurandi repertum est, ut "fides datis dexteris, qu:e erat πίστις βεβαιοτάτη Diolxvi.43 παρὰ τοῖς llépoau, firmissimum apud Persas fidei vin- eulum, aut alio quo signo obstringatur, ea vi, ut, ni im- pleatur promissio, promissor non minus detestabilis habeatur quam $1 pejerasset.
Przcipue de regibus virisque principibus dietum est usitatissimum, fidem eorum pro jurejurando vasint, Bons fidei sum: Tales enim esse debent, ut cum Augusto dicere pos- et cum Eumene, vitam se potius posituros quam fidem: quo et illud pertinet Guntheri Ligu- Nudo jus et reverentia verbo Regis inesse solet, quovis juramine major.
mox: σφαλερὸν μὲν οὖν καὶ περὶ ἑαυτοῦ Tiwa ὀμνύναι. πολλὰ γὰρ ὑπὸ τὴν τῶν πραγμάτων περιστάσεως βιαζόμεθα * Periculosum igitur etiam de suo actu jurare; multa enim mobis eripit ipsa verum nalura subjecta casibus. (Pag.
c Fides datis dexteris] Meminere Eustathius ad. Odyssee Ὡ: Aristopha- nis Scholiastes ad JVubes, [vers. 81. Vide et in Acharnens. vers. 307. qui locus in- signior est]: Diodorus Siculus (Libro χυι. 6. 43): Crantzius Saxonicorum X1. 27. In c. Ad aures, ὃ. de his que vi melusve causa, sequantur juramentum et fides interposita.
4 Bona fideisum] De Evagora Sa- laminis rege Isocrates: ὁμοίως τὰς ἐν τοῖς λόγοις ὁμολογίας ὥσπερ τὰς ἐν τοῖς ὕρκοις διαφυλάττων. (Pag. 197 x. ΕΔ. H. Steph.) Symmach. x. 19. Nus- quam major spes quam in bonorum prin- cipum sponsione. Nicetas de.Alerio Isaaci fratre Lib. 111, Βασιλεῦσι παρὰ πᾶν ἕτερον εὐορκεῖν τιθέναι περὶ πλεί- στου χρέων" Regibus jurisjurandi fides ante omnia alia ponenda est. (Cap. 4.)
XXII. Hence, in many cases, instead of an oath, was introduced a practice that good faith should be confirmed by giving the right hand, or some other sign; with this implication, that if the promise was not fulfilled, the promiser was held no less detestable than if he had per- jured himself. Especially it is a common saying, concerning kings and princes, that their word goes fortheir oath. For they ought to be such that they can say with Augustus: I am a man of good faith: and with Car. XIII.] DE JUREJURANDO. LITT Laudat oratione pro Deiotaro Cicero C. Cesaris dexte- cap. 8. ram, noh in bellis et przliis, quam in promissis et fide firmio- rem, Et heroicis temporibus sceptrum erectum pro regum jurejurando valuisse notatum Aristoteli. Pol. iii. 14.
Eumenes, that they would sooner forfeit their life than their word: as also Gunter says to Ligurinus.
Cicero in his oration for Deiotarus, praises Cesar by saying that his hand was as firm in pledging truth as in fighting battles. And in the heroie times, a sceptre was set up as the king's oath, as Aristotle notes.
CAPUT XIV.
DE EORUM QUI SUMMUM IMPERIUM HABENT PROMISSIS ET CONTRACTIBUS ET JURAMENTIS.
I. Refellitur sententia statuens — VIL Jus qwcesitum. subditis licite restitutiones in. integrum ez quomodo auferatur: jure civili venientes ad re- — VIII. Reéjecta, hic. distinctio quegum, actus, qua, tales sunt, siti er jure naturali aut pertinere: item regem ez ju- civili.
ramento non teneri. IX. Contractus regum. am leges IL..Ad quos regum actus leges sint, et quando.
plicatur. tibus teneantur omnium bo- IIL Jurejurando rer quando norum heredes.
teneatur, aut non teneatur. XL Quomodo ez iisdem contrac- IV. Quatenus rex teneatur his tibus obligentur qui in regque sine causa, promisit. num succedunt: V. Usus ejus quod de legum vi — XII. Et quatenus. circa regum contractus dic- — XIII. Beneficia regum qwe revotwm. est. cabilia sint, que mon, dis- VIL Rex subditis obligari natu- tinctione erplicatur.
raliter tantum, aut et civi- — XIV. Contractibus invasorum imliter, quo sensu recte dica- perü an teneatur. cujus erat tur. imperium.
E d ROMISSA, contractus, et juramenta legum, et qui alii iis pares jus in republica summum obtinent, pe- euliares habent quzestiones, tum de eo quod ipsis in actus suos licet, tum de eo quod in subditos, tum de eo quod in suc- cessores, Quod primum caput attinet, quzritur an ipse rex, ut subditos suos, ita se quoque restituere in integrum, aut contractum irritum facere, aut a jurejurando se exsolvere possit. Bodinus censet iisdem ex causis regem,!sive aliena 1 Non vult Bodinus, restitutionem — Regi denegari sane iniquum esset. De illam Regis, sive qua Regis, sive qua re ipsa plura diximus in Notis nostris Privati, fieri ex Legibus Civilibus, sed — Gallicis ad hunclocum. J. B. ex squitate naturali, cujus beneficium CuarrER XIV. Of the Promises, Contracts, and. Oaths of Sovereigns.
I. 1 The Promises, Contracts, and Oaths of Kings, and other persons who have like authority, give rise to peculiar questions, both as to the lawful power they have over themselves and their own actions, and that which they have over their subjects, and that which they have over their successors.
Car. XIV.] DE EORUM QUI SUMMUM IMPERIUM, ETC. 113 fraude ac dolo, sive errore cireumventum, sive metu, restitui posse, ex quibus subditus restitueretur, tum in iis quae ad jura majestatis imminutz, tum in 115 quz:e ad privata commoda per- tinent. Addit, ne jurejurando quidem teneri regem, si ejus- modi sint paeta conventa, a quibus discedere lex patiatur, etiamsi pacta honestati sint consentanea: non enim ideo teneri quia juraverit, sed quia justis conventionibus quisque teneatur, quatenus alterius intersit.
2 Nos, ut alibi distinximus, ita hic quoque distinguen- dum censemus inter actus Regis qui regii sunt, et actus ejus- dem privatos. Nam in regiis actibus quae rex facit eo loco habenda sunt, quasi communitas faceret: in tales autem actus sicut leges ab ipsa communitate fact, vim nullam haberent, quia communitas seipsa superior non est, ita nec leges regizm. Quare adversus hos contractus restitutio locum non habebit: venit enim illa ex jure civil. Non admittenda igitur exceptio regum adversus contractus quos minores fecissent.
II. 1 Plane si populus regem fecerit non pleno jure, sed additis legibus, poterunt per eas leges contrarii actus irriti As to the first head, it is made a question whether the king, as he can relieve his subjects from an oath, can do the same to himself, and put himself back into his original condition. PBodinus thinks that the king may be so reinstated, on the same grounds as a subject would be s0; whether he have been circumvented by the fraud and deception of another party, or by his own error, or fear; and this, both in matters which affect the rights of the sovereignty, and those which pertain to private advantage. le adds, that the king is not even bound by an oath, if the conventions made are of that kind from which the law permits parties to recede, even though the agreement is conformable to propriety; for (he holds) he is not therefore bound, because he has sworn, but because every one is bound by just con- ventions, so far as the interest of another is concerned.
2 We make a distinetion here, as we have done in other places, between the acts of the king which are royal acts, and acts of the same person which are private acts. For in royal acts, what the king does is to be held as if it were done by the community: and as laws made by the community itself would have no fcree over such acts, because the community is not superior to itself, so neither have laws made by the king any such force. "Therefore against such contracts, restitution will not hold: for this restitution is a creature of the Civil Law. And thus kings are not relieved from contracts which they had made as minors.
IL. 1 If a people have established a king who has not plenary 8 [cnor. rr.]
114 DE EORUM QUI SUMMUM IMPERIUM [118. II.
fieri, aut omnino, aut ex parte, quia eatenus populus jus sibi servavit. De iis autem actibus regum qui pleno jure regnant, sed regnum non ut proprium possident, quibus regnum aut regni pars aut res fiscales alienantur, egimus supra, et ostendi- mus hos actus ipso natur: jure nullos esse, ut factos de re aliena.
2 At privati actus regis considerandi sunt, non ut actus communitatis, sed ut actus partis, ac proinde facti eo animo, ut communem legum regulam sequantur. Unde etiam leges, qua aetus quosdam aut simpliciter, aut si is qui lzsus est velit, irritos faciunt, locum et hie habebunt, quasi sub ea conditione contractum foret. Sie videmus reges quosdam adversus fcene- bre malum sibi consuluisse juris remediis. Poterit tamen rex ut aliorum ita suos actus his legibus solvere; quod an facere voluerit, ex circumstantiis erit s:estimandum. — Si fecerit, judi- canda res erit ex mero jure naturali Hoc addendum, si quze lex actum irritum faciat, non in favorem agentis, sed in ponam, hane in regum actibus locum non habituram,?ut nec ? Non quidem peenam, quatenus co- — ciscitur: sed quatenus pertinet ad dam- actionem involvit, et a Superiore profi. — num datum alteri, cum quo contractum rights, but is under additional legal constraints, acts contrary to these laws may be by them made void; either altogether, or in part; because to this extent the people had retained a right to itself. In the case of kings who reign with plenary rights, but have not the kingdom as their own property, such acts of theirs as alienate the kingdom or a part thereof, or its revenues, have been discussed above; and we have shewn that such aets are by Natural Law void, as acts done to the property of another.
2 But the private acts of the king are to be considered, not as the acts of the community, but as acts of a private party, and conse- quently, done with the intention of following the common rule of law. Wherefore the laws which make some aets void, either absolutely, or if the person injured by them demands that they should be so, hold here also; as if the contract had been made under that condition. And accordingly we have seen certain kings protect themselves in this way against the evil of usury*. But the king may release his own acts, as he may those of others, from these laws: and whether he intends to do this, is to be estimated from the circumstances. If he does, the matter must then be judged by mere Natural Law. This is * Gronovius says that Grotius is here making an excuse for Philip II. of Spain, who repudiated a portion of his debts in 1596: and refers to Mezeray, B. x vri. Barbeyrae adds, on the same authority, that two years after, Philip revoked this act, and acknowledged his debts.
Car. XIV.] HABENT PROMISSIS, ETC. 115 alias leges poenales et quiequid vim habet cogendi. Nam punitio et coactio non possunt procedere nisi a voluntatibus diversis: itaque cogens et coactum requirunt distinctas per- sonas, neque sufficiunt distincti respectus.
III. Juramentum autem Rex irritum reddere antece- denter potest ut privatus, si se ipse potestate tale quid jurandi plane privaverit priore juramento: consequenter non potest, quia hie quoque personarum distinctio requiritur. Nam quse consequenter irrita redduntur, jam antea exceptionem in se habebant, nisi superior noluerit: at ita jurare ut tenearis nisi ipse nolis, perabsurdum est, et naturse jurisjurandi contrarium. Etsi vero ex jurejurando jus quzeri alteri non possit, ob aliquod vitium in persona, tamen eum qui juraverit Deo obstringi supra ostendimus: quod ad reges non minus quam ad alios pertinet, contra quam sentit dicto loco Bodinus.
IV. Promissa quoque plena, et absoluta, atque aeceptata, naturaliter jus transferre demonstratum supra est, quod itidem ad reges non minus quam ad alios pertinet, ita ut improbanda Ang. ad L. Luc. 29. D. de * Curt. Jun.
est, reparandum. Hoe enim respectu egi. Ostendimus id plenius in notis Rex potest et debet se ipsum subjicere ^ nostris Gallicis ad hunc locum. J. D.
to be added; that if any law make an act void, not in favour of the doer, but as a penalty on him, this does not hold against the acts of kings; as in other matters also, penal laws, and all which has a power of coercion do not apply to them. For punishment and coercion can only proceed from diversity of will: the coercer and the coerced require distinct persons; distinct relations [of the same person] are not sufficient.
III. A king, as a private person, may nullify an oath, antece- dently, if by a prior oath he deprive himself of the power of swearing to such an effect; but consequently, [after the act,] he cannot do this [by his royal authority:] for here too a distinction of persons is required. For the oaths which are nullified subsequently to the act, were already understood to be made with the exception, * except ἃ superior refuse his consent;" but to swear in such a sense, that you are bound, except you yourself refuse consent, is àbsurd, and contrary to the nature of an oath. But although a right may not be acquired by another person in virtue of the oath, on account of some defect in the person who swears, yet that he is bound to God, we have shewn above: and this applies to kings no less than to others; contrary to the sentiments of Bodinus in the place cited, IV. Also Promises, when full, absolute, and. accepted, naturally transfer a right, as wo have shewn above; and this likewise applies to 4.
Lib. ii. Contr. Ill. c. b1. n.
Suar. iii. 35.
116 DE EORUM QUI SUMMUM IMPERIUM f[Lix. II.
si& hoe quidem sensu eorum sententia, qui negant regem teneri unquam his qu: sine causa promisit: quod tamen quo sensu loeum habere possit mox videbimus, V. Ceterum quod diximus supra, leges civiles regni locum non habere in Regum pactis et contractibus, id recte vidit οὐ Vasquius. Sed quod infert emtionem et venditionem sine certo pretio, locationem et conductionem non expressa mercede, emphyteusin?sine scriptura, si a regibus fiant, vali- tura, non concedendum est: quia hi aetus non a rege qua rege, sed ab eo quasi alio quovis fieri solent. In quo actuum genere tantum abest ut communes regni leges vim nullam ha- beant, ut etiam leges oppidi, ubi Rex habitat, valere credamus; quia speciali ratione rex ibi se habet, ut illius cetus membrum. Quse tamen ut diximus ita procedunt, nisi cireumstantize osten- dant placuisse Regi suum actum ab illis legibus immunem fa- cere. Aliud vero exemplum, quod idem adfert Vasquius de promissione quolibet modo facta, bene convenit, et ex his, quze supra diximus, explicari potest.
VI. 1 Contractibus quos rex eum subditis iniit obligari 3 Verius est, Scripturam non re- 1 Confer, circa hane divisionem, Pu- quiri, ex natura illius contractus. Vide ^ rrwponriuM, De Jure Nat. et Gent. VixN1IUM, in Tit. Znstit. De Locat. Con- — Lib. rr. cap. iv. 8 ὅ. J. B. duct. ὃ 8. J. B. ἃ Abundantiam bonitatis] Huc perkings, no less than to others: so that we condemn, in this sense, the opinion of those who say that a king is never bound by the promises which he made without a cause. In what sense this may be truly held, we shall hereafter see.
V. What we have said above, that the Civil Law of the kingdom does not hold in the compacts and contracts of kings, Vasquius also has rightly seen. But his inferences, that buying and selling with- out a certain price, letting and hiring without stating the hire, a lease without a writing, are valid if done on the part of kings, is not to be coneeded: because these acts are not done by the king as king, but by him as by any other person. In this class of acts, it is so far from being true, that the common laws of the kingdom have no force, that we maintain that even the laws of the town in which the king lives are of force: inasmuch as the king abides there in a special manner, as a member of that society. Which, however, is as we say, except cireumstances shew that it pleases the king to make his act free from the authority of those laws. — Another example which Vas- quius gives, of a promise made in any way, agrees well with this rule, and may be explained by what we have said above.
Car. XIV.] HABENT PROMISSIS, ETC. 117 eum naturaliter tantum, non civiliter, Jurisconsulti ferme om- Pal. ad Li. e pac nes sentiunt, quod loquendi genus perobseurum est. Nam Lr ^naturalis obligatio interdum a juris auctoribus dicitur per 4/7. 1. abusionem de eo quod fieri natura honestum est, quanquam auti S S^ € serv.
non vere debitum, ut legata integra sine detractione Faleidie 57/5 «1. Const. Bal. prostare, solvere debitum quo quis in penam creditoris erat n SP pcc. 10. cond. liberatus, vicem beneficio rependere, quae omnia cessare faciunt οὗ caus. ein lex imp. 3. condictionem indebiti: interdum vero magis proprie id quod 7: C. detest. L * τ vere nos obligat, sive inde jus alteri oriatur, ut in pactis, sive ^ κὰ Ro i non oriatur, ut in plena et firma pollicitatione. Maimonides 77,7; ^" Hebreus lib. 11. Ducis dubitantium capite 54 tria hzc apte TOO distinguit, e£ quze non debentur ait venire benignitatis nomine, ἦν n: pe." id est TD, quam alii interpretes ad Prov. xx. 28 explicant iur nauem n3» *abundantiam bonitatis; quse debentur ex jure stricte sumto, Dew judicium MHebrszis vocari; quse ex honestate, justitiam ΓΝ, id est squitatem; ἔλεον, κρίσιν, πίστιν dixit interpres Matthsi xxii. 28 ubi πίστιν vocat quz Hellenistis plerumque est δικαιοσύνη. — Nam κρίσιν pro eo quod striete debetur reperias etiam 1 Macc. vii. 18 et viii. 32.
tinent ea qu: non ob aliam causam fiunt σίας ἀποῤῥεῖ τὴν ἡμερότητος" Ex ubere quam ut liberalitas et munificentia exer- — fonte mansueti ingenii manat beneficenceantur, ut loquitur lex 1i. D. de Dona- — tia: Plutarchus Catone majore, (pag. lionibus: χρηστότης ἐκ πηγῆς πλου- 9989 ^. Tom. 1.)
VI. 1 Almost all jurists deliver an opinion that by contracts which the king enters into with his subjects, he is obliged naturally only, not civilly: which is a very obscure way of speaking. For juristi- cal writers sometimes by an abuse of language call that, natural obli- gation, which it is by nature a handsome thing to do, though it is not truly due: as for an executor to pay legacies entire without the deduction which the Falcidian law allows; to pay a just debt when the creditor has been deprived of his legal right by a penal sentence; to return a benefit for a benefit; none of which can be recovered by an action of false debt. But sometimes, more properly, they use the term for that which truly obliges or binds us; whether another person thereby acquire a right, as in pacts, or does not, as in a full and firm pollicitation or proffer. Maimonides distinguishes these three cases; things which are not due, he calls kindnesses; things due by strict law, judgments; things due by propriety, justice. So Matth. xxiii. 23, mercy, judgment, and. faith, are by some interpreted, as if faith were put for righteousness: judgment means what is strictly due: see 1 Macc. vii, 18, and viii. 32, Jas. 7. v. de cond. caus. dat.
Castal. de Vasq. Lib. i. contr. 3l. €. 5. àn pr. et Boro E Castr. Lib. i, cons. 239.
118 DE EORUM QUI SUMMUM IMPERIUM [1μ1. II.
2 QCiviliter quoque obligari ex actu suo dici quis potest, aut eo sensu, ut obligatio procedat non ex mero jure naturali, sed ex jure civili, vel ex utroque, aut eo sensu, ut in foro actio inde detur. Dicimus ergo ex promisso et contractu Regis, quem eum subditis iniit, nasci veram ac propriam obli- gationem, quae jus det ipsis subditis: ea enim est promissorum et contractuum natura, ut supra ostendimus, etiam inter Deum et hominem. Quod si tales sint actus qui a rege, sed ut a quovis alio fiant, etiam civiles leges in eo valebunt: sin actus sit regis qua regis, ad eum civiles leges non pertinent: quod discrimen a Vasquio non satis observatum est; neque tamen eo minus ex utrovis actu nascetur actio, nempe ut declaretur jus creditoris, sed coactio sequi non poterit, ob statum eorum quibuseum negotium est: nam subditis cogere eum, cui sunt subditi, non licet, sed zequalibus in:equales id jus est a natura, superioribus in subditos etiam ex lege.
VII. Sed hoe quoque sciendum est, posse subditis jus etiam quzsitum auferri per regem duplici modo, aut in poenam, aut ex vi supereminentis domini. 5Sed ut id fiat ex vi super- 5 Vide PvrENponriuM, De Jure Nat. et Gent. Lib. vit. cap. 5. 8 7. J. B.
2 Again; a person may be said to be civilly obliged by his own act, either in this sense,—that the obligation does not proceed from mere Natural Law, but from the Civil Law, or from both;——or in this sense, that it gives ground for an action in a Court of Law.