3. The effect of alcohol when taken in large quantities on the amount and quality of muscular work which can be done is deleterious, according to most observers. Some hold that the bad effect upon muscular work can be observed for many hours after the alcohol has been consumed. On the effect of small doses of alcohol Rivers has the following to say: "I may now sum up the general results which have so far been reached. In the case of muscular work, we have seen that there is definite evidence that small doses, varying from 5 to 20 c.c. of absolute alcohol, have no effect on the amount or nature of the work performed with the ergograph, either immediately or within several hours of their administration, the results pre- viously obtained by other workers being almost certainly due to defects of experimental method. With a larger dose of 40 c.c., there was evidence — in one case, at least — of an increase in the amount of work under the influence of the substance; but the increase was uncertain and inconstant, and the possibility cannot be excluded that it was due to disturbing factors. With larger doses than 40 c.c., we have the work of Hellsten, showing a decided falling off in the amount of work with a dose of 80 grammes."
The effect upon language functions is not clear. They are undoubtedly less affected than are manual habits. Dodge, in his recent study, has shown that the more complex functions, such as memory and thinking, show less effect under the administra- tion of alcohol than do the simple reflexes, although when any effect is noticeable it is one of depression. This seems to contra- dict the popular view, since it is a matter of common observation that in certain social situations, such as a dinner party, afternoon 362 PSYCHOLOGY tea or wedding, conversation becomes accelerated when alcohol is consumed.2 The situation here is quite complex. The depres- sive effect seems to be focalized in the cortical centers, thus leav- ing the segmental speech connections without cortical control. When larger amounts of alcohol are consumed the cord centers become affected and conversation declines, the company becomes dull and depression of all functions can be observed.
4. On the biological side the results are not very clear. Psy- chopathology shows that many feeble-minded and psychopathic children are born of alcoholic parents. The question here, though, is whether the parents were not psychopathic before becoming alcoholic. Alcoholism may be merely one form in which the neurotic tendencies show themselves. It is questionable- whether a sturdy individual free from hereditary stigmata, could ever be- come alcoholic. So many normal interests would come in con- flict with the excessive use of alcohol that it is almost unthinkable that a healthy man could sink his cares and worries in that form of oblivion. Experiments upon animals are again not wholly conclusive. Stockard's work on the guinea-pig represents one side, Pearl 's experiments on the domestic fowl represent the other. The former found that if guinea-pigs were forced to breathe alco- hol fumes for long periods of time the progeny of such individ- uals was born with a large number of abnormalities, and the tenure of life was shortened. Furthermore, the f2 generation still showed the evil effects. Pearl, on the other hand, found almost the opposite effect upon domestic fowls. The egg-laying 8 While possibly no good physiological reason can be.assigned for it, the different forms of alcohol seem to produce differences in the liveliness of a given company. The consumption of the same amount of grain alcohol at a social gathering will not produce the same effect as will an equal amount of alcohol in the form of chamipagne or a cocktail. The liveliness which ensues during social functions is not wholly due 'by any means to the alcohol which is taken. While the dinner as a whole might be a failure without it, the primary effect of the alcohol is probably to bring about an increased glandular activity which raises rapidly the general emotional level of the individuals partaking of it. This is pure speculation, since the author knows of no work which tests the effects of alcohol upon internal secre- tions. All that we argue for here is that the sight of the wine or cocktail may start conditioned secretion reflexes.
THE ORGANISM AT WORK 363 capacity was possibly increased and the fertility of the eggs was in no way decreased, nor were any evil effects noticed upon the young.
Certainly no experimental work, either upon humans or animals, has shown that the consumption of alcohol in small amounts when taken after the working period of the day is over produces any evil effect either upon the individual or upon his progeny. Certain statistics have been advanced by life insurance companies which would seem to controvert this statement. These mortality tables seem to show that even the occasional drinker has a shorter span of life than the total abstainer. These state- ments have been called into serious question by statisticians of the highest character who are interested only in the mathematical side of the problem and not in the good or bad effects of alcohol.
In the opinion of a great many people, the following state- ments seem to be reasonable: ( 1 ) That the only sane thing to do is to keep alcohol from children during the growing and ado- lescent periods, not because experiment has shown that small amounts will injure them but because there may be a risk and the risk is1 not worth while since the child is in no need of relax- ation from work. (2) That the distribution of alcohol is not (or rather was not) very wisely handled. The saloon is gen- erally recognized as an unwholesome institution because it pro- vides a loafing place for individuals out of work, keeps the working-man from his home, encourages drink during the work- ing hours of the day and because of the fact that undesirable characters very often frequent it. The more reasonable mem- bers of the community feel that if the saloon could be eradicated and the sale of high-proof liquors stopped, then the lighter wines and beer could be consumed in small amounts in the evening after the working period is done with no detriment to the race as a whole. The advantage they urge from such a handling of the alcoholic situation is the relaxation which a small amount of alcohol brings. The concept of relaxation is a growing one and people realize that when the day's work is done some form of relaxation is advantageous. No man to-day of any thought- fulness will tell you that he takes his quota of alcohol to increase 364 PSYCHOLOGY his output of muscular work or to increase his ability to write or think clearly. They frankly admit that when they have a definite and delicate job to do they want to be free from the effects of alcohol. On the other hand, they give as their reason for drinking that when they come home tired, from their work or worn out with business and professional cares they want to be freed from them as rapidly as possible and that alcohol brings the needed relaxation. They state that they can become, through the effects of a cocktail or a glass of wine, a social rather than an unsocial being, that this aids them in putting aside the daily grind and entering into their family life and social relations gen- erally with greater rapidity. They argue further that since no experimental work has ever shown that the amount of alcohol they consume has any detrimental effect upon their character or ability to work on the following day, they see no reason why they should not continue to live as they have in the past.
Regardless of what scientific results may show and what the opinion of the small consumer of alcohol may be, the laws of the country have decided that the manufacture and sale of alcohol must be eliminated. The prediction of the outcome of this ex- periment is more difficult than most people imagine. Relaxation as we pointed out above, will be obtained in one way or another. Whether the outlet will take place along sane lines, as smoking clubs, coffee houses, greater outside exercise; or along lines far more pernicious than alcohol — for example, in some form of drug consumption or in greater sex freedom — remains to be decided.
If one examines the history of races, the fact appears that the stronger nations have always been the largest consumers of alcohol and have used the most varied forms of it. That alcohol has had any serious effect upon the efficiency of the French, English, Scandinavian, German and Austrian nations cannot be put forth seriously. The argument is often made that Russia's present condition is due to the large consumption of alcoholic drinks. A more reasonable view is that their education is so poor, their outlets for social relaxation so limited and their climate so severe that they have learned to use alcohol as an THE ORGANISM AT WORK 365 anaesthetic. With better social conditions alcohol would no longer be used as the only source of relaxation.
Effect of Caffeine. — Caffeine is the active principle in tea, coffee and many soda fountain drinks. Its effects upon various functions have been tested by many investigators. The studies of Rivers and of Hollingworth are most important. The former worked largely with the ergograph and with typewriting. Rivers" general conclusions are as follows: "The general practical conclusions to be drawn from the experiments which I have recorded, and from those of previous workers, is that caffeine increases the capacity for both muscular and mental work, this stimulating action persisting for a con- siderable time after the substance has been taken without there being any evidence, with moderate doses, of reaction leading to a diminished capacity for work, the substance thus really dimin- ishing and not merely obscuring the effects of fatigue."
Hollingworth 's experiments were made upon a somewhat more pretentious scale. He kept his subjects guarded as to the outside work they did and the amount of food and rest taken. Several subjects were used who worked, except for the drug in- troduced, under normal conditions. The test lasted forty days. Tests of speed of movement (tapping), motor coordination and steadiness were made. There was an increase in the speed of movement which depended somewhat upon the size of the dose. The amount of caffeine given varied from 2 to 6 grains. The effect was noted usually within the hour after taking the drug (Rivers states that it is often noticeable within 15 minutes) and lasted usually from 1 to 4 hours. No secondary depresssion, as was -pointed out by Rivers, occurred within 72 hours. This is unusual, since such depressions usually follow after the exciting phase of a stimulant has worn off. In regard to motor coordina- • tion, Hollingworth states that small doses increase efficiency, whereas large doses, from 4 to 6 grains, decrease it. The steadi- ness test shows that slight tremor occurs with doses of 1 to 4 grains. The tremor appears after several hours. Larger doses increase the tremor and hasten its onset. Other functions were observed under the drus1: association tests such as the naming 366 PSYCHOLOGY.
of colors and the giving of opposites of certain words. Caffeine doses of every size increased efficiency in such functions, the in- crease lasting from 3 to 7 hours. In such activities as the can- cellation of letters and numbers, reacting with the right hand to a blue paper and with the left hand to a red one, small doses produced retardation, large doses acceleration.3 The effect of caffeine upon typewriting was most carefully studied. The speed of performance was quickened by small doses and retarded by large. On the other hand, the quality of performance as meas- ured by the number of errors, both corrected and uncorrected, was improved by doses of all sizes.
Caffeine also comes under the head of " habit-forming drugs. " Headache and general restlessness ensue if the subject is de- prived of its use. No laboratory work touches the influence of caffeine on daily routine. One needs only to observe the behavior of the ordinary human being before and after his cup of coffee is taken in the morning, or of the tired hunter or soldier after the day's work is over, to gain some idea of the general stimulating effect of coffee and tea. It is interesting to speculate upon the number of scientific books and papers that have been written with the aid and supporting effect of caffeine.
Tobacco. — While experimentation in this field is in its in- fancy, the results, if taken at their face value, show a deleterious effect upon efficiency. One of the earliest experiments was made by Lombard in 1892, who found, measuring the amount of work done on the ergograph, that one cigar enormously decreased the output. The effect passed off rapidly after the cigar was finished, but the function was not completely restored until more than an hour after the cigar was laid aside. Several others have partly confirmed the results of Lombard, finding, however, that the effect was not so marked. Fere found that cigarette smoking produced an increase in the output of work, if the test was made five minutes after the cigarette was smoked. A decrease in the amount of work followed rapidly. If the test was not made until 8 It seems unfortunate that this author with unlimited facilities at his disposal should have selected so many narrow, functions for observation and functions which mean so little even when accuratelv measured.
THE ORGANISM AT WORK 367 fifteen minutes after smoking, the effect was deleterious on the function from the start. Rivers found a slight decrease in work done (ergograph) on days when cigars were smoked as con- trasted with that done on days when cigars were not smoked (2 days with smoking were contrasted in one subject with 3 days without smoking and in another subject 2 days with smoking with 2 days without). The decrease in efficiency was very small.
Bush has recently made an extensive series of tests upon the effect of smoking upon laryngeal functions such as subtraction, free and controlled association and memory. The tests were first given to obtain a standard. The subject then smoked for 15 minutes, after which the tests were repeated. In most cases the effect was deleterious, the average loss being 10.6 per cent. The smoking of non-tobacco material (cubebs) likewise produced a reduction of efficiency of 4.2 per cent., which is rather aston- ishing in view of the fact that such extra afferent stimulation should, other things being equal, facilitate the output.
The experimental results on tobacco are thus very meagre. If any conclusion can be drawn it is that its effect is depressing upon the function studied. Prohibition of smoking among men undergoing training for athletic contests reflects this.
Tobacco, of course, is another "habit-forming drug." To those addicted to its use no such experiments as the above can be convincing. If deprived of their smoke their efficiency in all functions for the time being, at least, remains at a low ebb (they spend their time in restless roving). The argument of the smoker is that it is his form of relaxation and that no slight loss in efficiency of so temporary a character can be weighed in the scale against the use of tobacco. If the anti-tobacco propagan- dists had succeeded in prohibiting the use of tobacco in the Army in the recent war it is difficult to tell what the effect would have been upon the morale of the men. Under emotional strain it forms a relatively safe outlet which for the smoker, at any rate, is essential.
Strychnine. — The effect of strychnine on habit functions has not surely been determined. Jones, administering strychnine by the mouth in large (4.2 milligrammes of hydrochloride of strych- 368 PSYCHOLOGY • nine) and in small doses (1.8 milligrammes) found that the drug produced an obvious effect upon the amount of work which could be done on the ergograph. There was with large doses a rise in the amount of work and then a gradual fall. The rise for the smaller doses was less rapid and the decline took place more slowly. There is thus a general increase in efficiency followed by a decrease — the total output being less.
Poffenberger in a recent experiment found no effect from doses ranging from 1/30 to 1/20 grain upon steadiness and accuracy in speed of movement. No effect was observed upon a series of other functions involving largely language organization.
Jones' observations were made under the direction of Rivers; they are, accordingly, probably accurate in so far as ergographic experiments can be made so. The reason for Poffenberger 's fail- ure to find any effect was possibly due to the difficulty in ad- ministering a suitable dose for the particular subjects tested. Of course, the same functions were not tested, but this hardly ac- counts for the complete lack of harmony in the two investigations.
Strychnine, of course, is a dangerous drug and should be experimented with only under the direction of a physician.
Cocaine.— There is fairly general agreement obtained from the scattering experimental work done upon this demoralizing and dangerous drug. Its immediate effect is to largely increase the efficiency of the function being tested (usually the ergo- graph); there is later, of course, a very strongly marked de- pression. The interesting fact about the drug is that its effect is quickly noticeable in states bordering upon almost complete exhaustion. It is stated that the natives of South America are enabled to perform great feats of endurance owing to its effect, and to withstand severe hunger and thirst under its influence (Rivers). On account of the relaxation it brings and the rapid ensuing temporary improvement in practically all functions it has become a favorite with drug addicts. That'there is a marked increase in its use is admitted by every one. One cannot help but see in this drug a possible but unfortunate escape for those who have become really addicted to the use of alcohol.
THE ORGANISM AT WORK 369 EFFECT OF CLIMATE AND OTHER FACTORS UPON THE CURVE OF WORK.
Ventilation. — Recent work has upset the older notions con- cerning the effect of poor ventilation upon the curve of work. The older view was that in crowded, humid, hot rooms the increase of C02 in the air, the decrease in the percentage of oxygen and the expired organic matter ("anthropotoxin") were responsible for the ill effects observed. Pure air contains about 21 per cent, of oxygen, 78 per cent, of nitrogen and 0.03 per cent, of carbon- dioxide. In crowded, ill- ventilated factories and schools oxygen may be reduced to 19 per cent, and the carbon-dioxide increased to 0.3 per cent. But these changes in the air's constituents are too slight to produce physiological disturbance. The general changes observed upon subjects sitting or working in poorly ventilated, hot, humid rooms are drowsiness, lassitude, fainting, flushed face, hot skin, sweating, with complaints of headache and various other ills. That these changes are not due to the lack of oxygen and to the increase of C02 is proved by the fact that if such individuals while working in the same poorly ventilated rooms are allowed to breathe fresh outside air through a tube they are not restored to normal. The moment, however, the temperature and humidity are lowered, especially at the surface of the body, as can be done by stirring the air with a fan, the disturbances disappear, al- though no fresh air is introduced. In various ways it has been shown that the optimum conditions for work are 68° F., 50 per cent, relative humidity and 45 cubic feet of outside air per person per minute. Under such an optimum all general bodily disturb- ances are at a minimum.
These changes in the bodily condition of the subject due to poor ventilation, while they are stimuli that are usually nega- tively reacted to by most members of the human race, do not necessarily interfere with the possibility of efficient work. The question then arises, suppose we make the work, either through money, social approval, or fear, of high stimulating value, can the subject do as much manual and laryngeal work as under the optimum conditions for work? In manual functions all re- cent experiments show that there is loss in efficiency in poorly 24 370 PSYCHOLOGY • ventilated, crowded rooms. When the temperature and humidity are raised there is a falling off in efficiency in such functions as running a bicycle ergometer which indicates the exact foot- pounds of work accomplished and in the manipulation of dumb- bells. The efficiency at the optimum condition is 37 per cent, greater than at 86° F. and 15 per cent, greater than at 75° F.
In regard to laryngeal work and combined laryngeal and manual work, that is, in all functions where the muscular area involved is small, there seems to be little or no loss in efficiency due to even marked upward variations from the optimum. The following functions have been studied: Cancellation, naming of opposites, color naming, written addition, subvocal multiplica- tion, learning to typewrite, grading of handwriting, and grading of English composition. Thorndike, in summarizing the work done at the laboratory of the New York State Commission on Ventilation, has the following to say: With the forms of work and lengths of period used, we find that when an individual is urged to do his best he does as much, and does it as well, and improves as rapidly, in a hot, humid, stale, and stagnant air condition (86° F., 80 per cent, relative humidity, with no air or only re-circulated air, and with no move- ment of the air save what is caused by events in the room and, in the case of re-circulation, by the re-circulating force) as in an optimum condition (68° F., 50 per cent. rel. hum., 45 cu. ft. per person per minute of outside air introduced). This result was obtained when the individuals were subjected to the bad condi- tions 4 hours a day for five consecutive days. Enough individuals were tested to make the result entirely reliable.
We find further that when an individual is given work to do that is of no interest or value to him and is deprived even of means of telling how well he does do it, and is in other ways tempted to relax standards and do work of a poor quality, he still shows no inferiority in the. quality of the product produced in stagnant air at 86°, 80 per cent. r. h., with 30 to 40 parts of C02 per 10,000, he being subjected to this condition for 8 hours a day for four successive days, and tested on the second, third, and fourth day. There is some evidence that he spends more time on the work, but even this is not certain.
Finally, we find that when an individual is left to his (or her) own choice as to whether he shall do mental work or read THE ORGANISM AT WORK 371 stories, rest, talk, or sleep, he does as much work per hour when the temperature is 75° as when it is 68°. In the experiments on this topic, temperature alone was varied, other air conditions being kept constant. The reason for this limitation was the apparent absence in all experiments to date, of any physiological effect due to staleness of the air as shown by high CO2 content. The smaller difference was chosen to make the experiments suit- able for their main purpose as a test of certain conditions upon appetite, the psychological tests being in this case secondary. It is also the case that the effect of moderate overheating upon the inclination to do mental work is, in practice, more important than the effect of extreme heat. The two conditions (68° and 75°) were maintained each for three successive days of seven hours each.
In a very short experiment wherein the temperature was varied to 86° F., 80 per cent, rel. hum., there did seem to be a diminished inclination to do mental work, but the variability of results in all such experiments with optional work advises us to postpone any conclusions concerning the effect of very high tem- peratures upon inclination until adequate experiments are made.
Miss Stecher in further work at the laboratory of the New York State Commission on Ventilation has tested several func- tions under low and high humidity with temperature held at a constant, namely, 75° F. The relative humidity in one case was 50 per cent., in the other 20 per cent. The following functions were tested: Addition, aiming, hand steadiness, tapping, type- writing, arm steadiness, mirror tracing,. " industrial fatigue," reflex wink and eyelid tremor. She concludes: In all these tests the average improvement from the first described above and also the average improvement from the first to the last trial on any particular day, showed no reliable differ- ence. That is, by these tests of nervous and motor control and by the more purely intellectual tests we could detect no influence of excessive dry ness during two weeks' exposure or during the working day.
While these results are in sharp contrast to the general view and seem to be opposed even to common-sense, one can but accept them until further tests are made. It is well to remem- ber that in all such tests the stimulating value of the problems even where alternate work is allowed is very much higher than 372 PSYCHOLOGY that offered in one's daily routine. Furthermore, the time the tests occupied was extremely short for the advancing of such far-reaching conclusions. The human organism is built to with- stand and endure hardships for long periods of time. If lack of food for thirty days will not reduce the efficiency of the biological machine very greatly (page 378) nor the consumption of drugs, nor thirst nor loss of sleep, we should expect some such results as the above during the time these tests were continued. To generalize as many authors have done is at present not warranted.