Thorndike has drawn an extended conclusion from the above work to the effect that fully as efficient work may be carried out in the hot, humid summer months as in the cool of winter. Such an extension is just about as fallacious as would be the gener- alization that since Agostino Levanzin improved in many functions and showed losses in only a few during a thirty-one day fast, one might safely encourage him to go continuously without food. Such generalizations, however comforting to the summer student, lend themselves to possible abuse by owners of sweatshops, cotton mills and the authorities in control of the schools in cities with corrupt governments. To be on the safe side one would have to carry out experiments upon growing children for long periods of time. In the absence of such ex- perimentation all would agree that the optimum specified is still desirable.
The Effect of Climate.— The experiments showing that the "discomforts" (flushed face, dry skin or sweating, complaints of headache, etc.) and the loss in efficiency were due to a rise in temperature with increase in humidity were made after the ob- servations of Dexter and of Huntington on the effect of climate. Their observations in general are in conformity with and ex- plicable in the terms of the findings of the Ventilation Commis- sion. High winds, cloudy and rainy days seem to have a disturbing effect upon humanity's daily routine. It has been asserted that on days when violent electrical disturbances are present (electric storms) humanity's errors are increased. No trustworthy evidence for this assertion is at hand.
General Effect of Oxygen Deficiency.— The effect of oxygen THE ORGANISM AT WORK 373 deficiency has been studied with some degree of care by the psy- chologists attached to the Medical Research Laboratory at Min- eola. It is well known that mountain climbers and pilots flying in high altitudes suffer seriously from lack of oxygen. In order to get a more or less complete picture of these changes and to test the individual variation in the ability to withstand such changes, a large low-pressure chamber was constructed from which the air could be exhausted, thus reducing the oxygen tension until it could be made to correspond to the tension at any barometric level. After oxygen tension has been decreased to a certain point certain habit systems of the human individual begin to decline in efficiency. These effects multiply until complete asphyxiation occurs. If, during the onset of oxygen hunger, the subject is made to perform certain motor operations somewhat similar to those used in flying the effects will show themselves. In the test devised by Dunlap the subject was seated before a table upon which were placed 14 stimulus lamps arranged in 2 rows of 7 each. Immediately below the lamps were 2 similarly arranged rows* of contact buttons, each surrounded by a washer. If the button was touched with a stylus a green check lamp lighted up, but if the surrounding washer was touched a red error light would appear. As soon as any lamp lighted up the subject moved his arm and hand from a position of rest and touched the appropriate contact button with the stylus. The lighting of the small lamps was under the control of the experi- menter. The lamps could be made to light in any order. In addi- tion to having him touch the appropriate contact button he had to keep an ammeter reading at a certain point; the amount of current going through the ammeter was under the control of the experimenter. The third thing the subject had to do was to keep a small motor running at low speed by rocking a foot pedal. The speed of the motor, also, was under the control of the experimen- ter. With the foot pedal in one position the motor would slow down. Without having the subject change his foot the ex- perimenter could again speed the motor up and to slow it the subject would have to rock the pedal to its other position. These acts were all very simple and could be grasped by the subject 374 PSYCHOLOGY • after a few minutes of practice. At the same time, they kept him alert. After touching the light he would have to glance quickly at the ammeter and then back to the bank of lamps. The effect of oxygen hunger would show itself in fumbling, striking too hard or too easily with the stylus; in slowing or speed- ing of the reactive movements; failure to glance at the light, or fixating the ammeter and failing to glance at the keys, thus letting a light go by unreacted to; delaying reaction until he could not touch the contact with the stylus before the light went out — the light stayed on only two seconds; touching the contacts in the wrong row or the wrong column; staring at the light and making no effort to touch the contact. Finally he would allow the motor to run continuously at high speed; let the lights go by without reacting to them; and fail to adjust the ammeter. At this point complete incapacity had been reached.
The effect upon established habits such as that of handwriting was studied by the author. A standard psychological vocabulary test was used in making up the test cards. The one hundred words of the test were cut up, put in a hat and shuffled. As the words were drawn from the hat they were typewritten on a standard library card. By this method three (or any larger number) test cards of one hundred words each were obtained. The task of copying the cards offered the same difficulty to the subject, since the same words were used on each card, only the order being different. Since the copying of words is an old- established habit there was little improvement through the prac- tice obtained by the single writing on each of the three cards. The subject wrote one card at normal barometric pressure (but in the chamber with the motor running, oxygen tube in the mouth, etc.). The second card was written 15 minutes after a given "alti- tude ' ' had been reached. Immediately after writing the (second) card at this altitude pure oxygen was administered from a tank through the mouth for two minutes. The third card was then handed to the subject and he was instructed to copy it. Fig. 66 shows Capt. Davis 's normal handwriting, his handwriting at 22,000 feet and his handwriting after breathing oxygen for two minutes. The records of the men undergoing this test were THE ORGANISM AT WORK A examined and evaluated. The legibility was measured on Thorn- dike 's handwriting scale and various penalties were assigned for errors. The following table will explain the method of rating. The score was made from the records shown in Fig. 66.
376 PSYCHOLOGY Two minutes after Under administration Normal oxygen hunger of oxygen Legibility rated on Thorndike scale, last 8 lines only. (Penalty of 20 for each unit lost on Thorndike scale; credit of 20 for each unit Word omitted. (Penalty of 2 each Word misspelled or wrong word used. (Penalty of 2 each word).0 0 0 Word scratched out and rewritten.
Word careted in. (Penalty of 2 each word) 0 0 0 Word (or any part thereof) written Failure to follow line as well as original. (Penalty of 2 each line Time; penalize 1 for each 10 seconds increase, or credit 1 for each 10 It will thus be seen that handwriting and the accuracy of copying a list of words is seriously affected by the lack of oxygen, but that the administration of pure oxygen for two minutes al- most completely restores this function even though the subject remain at the height of 22,000 feet.
These tables have been made at 14,000 feet, 16,000 feet, 18,000 feet and 22,000 feet. While our records are not complete the results show that at 14,000 feet the effect of a deficient supply of oxygen is very slight. From this point on the various subjects are affected differently. Some individuals are badly affected at 16,000 feet while others are only slightly affected at 18,000 feet. Beyond this point apparently every one shows loss of efficiency. Only one record at 22,000 feet was obtained. Two other subjects tested at 22,000 feet fainted before the last two records could be made. In every case except where fainting occurred the two minutes' administration of oxygen completely restored the hand- writing to normal.4 4 The author takes this occasion to point out the fact that of the twelve cuts illustrating his work in the Manual of the Medical Research Laboratory at Mineola, twelve either bear wrong titles or else are mis- placed; for example, the A in our Fig. 66 is marked in the Manual Capt.
THE ORGANISM AT WORK 377 The Diurnal Course of Efficiency. — Several experiments have been carried out for the purpose of determining the relative course of efficiency during the day. Apparently two objects really have been sought: (1) to determine the time of day any given function can be most efficiently exercised and (2) to determine the spread or transfer of "fatigue" (influ- ence of continuous exercise of groups of functions upon some other function).
In regard to (1) there seems to be no reliable conclusion. March states that in manual functions such as aiming, tapping and the like where both accuracy and speed are called for, the maximum of accuracy comes earlier in the day than speed. Hol- lingworth, on the contrary, finds that mere speed is at a maximum near the end of the day and speed with accuracy near the middle of the day. Gates in a variety of tests findsi efficiency increasing in all functions from morning to noon; in the afternoon the effi- ciency of manual functions continues to increase, whereas the functions involving mainly laryngeal activity show an after- lunch decrease followed by a final increase. Stecher, who has most recently worked upon the problem, obtains still different results. It seems safe to say that until diet, sleep, general activity and certain general organic functions are kept uniform no reliable in- formation can be obtained upon this problem. In the animal world the rhythm of rest and activity can be altered by shifting the feeding periods.
In regard to (2) above we can make the problem more spe- cific: Suppose a student in the grades or in the high school works steadily at a variety of school subjects from 9 to 2: 30 (mainly laryngeal functions). Can he perform mathematical computa- tions at well at 9: 30 A.M. as at 2 P.M.? Hecht has probably made Boring's oxygen restoration record, whereas B in our figure is marked Capt. Davis' restoration record. Opportunity was not given the author to read this proof. He had hoped to extend his work to the effect of oxygen hunger upon the accuracy of machine-gun firing which could very easily have been investigated in the tank by means of the machine-gun camera. In the above report on the effect of oxygen hunger the temperature was not accurately controlled. It ranged from 69° F. at the beginning of the experiment to 72° F. at the close. The tank permitted some circulation of outside air.
378 PSYCHOLOGY the most careful study of this problem in connection with the schools. He tested pupils for 10 minutes at 4 periods in the day and with a careful enough technic to obtain reliable results. The amount and accuracy of the work done practically did not vary. Nearly all other investigators confirm this finding.
Effect of Prolonged Fast Upon Certain Functions. — In the spring of 1912 Langfeld made a study of Agostino Levanzin, a forty-year-old individual, sound and normal in every respect. Before the fast to be described he had gone without food at one other time for 40 days, pleading a case in court on the 26th day of his fast. Before this fast he weighed 180 pounds and after it 140 pounds. On the above date he began his fast at the Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute of Washington in' Boston. His weight at the beginning of the test was 134 pounds and at the end 106 pounds. The fast endured from the morning of April 14 to May 15, a period of 31 days. During that time 750 c.c. of distilled water was drunk daily, but no food of any kind was taken. The following tests were made at intervals: Rote memory for words, tapping, strength, tactual space threshold, touch threshold, free association, association reaction, cancellation, handwriting, visual acuity, and memory for words after 55 min- utes. Unfortunately this subject was not well practiced in many of these functions before the test began, so that the factor of im- provement enters in as an offset to the possible loss, through fasting. "While in one way this is disadvantageous, in another way it is of interest and importance in view of the fact that it shows that lack of food even for long periods does not stop the learning process.
It would take us too far afield to examine separately the vari- ous tests upon this fasting individual. In general it may be stated that there was a loss in muscular strength, a gain in sen- sory acuity and a decided increase in efficiency in those functions not practiced well before the test began. In other words? learn- ing took place much as it would have taken place had the indi- vidual not been fasting. Several other tests similar in character THE ORGANISM AT WORK 379 have been carried out upon fasting individuals, but not with the same degree of scientific oversight. The most noticeable case is Luciani's test of Succi, who fasted for 30 days. Merlatti is re- ported to have fasted for 50 days and Dr. Tanner for 40 days. All of these subjects apparently remained in good physical condi- tion during the fast. Luciani states that- Succi was at all times very eager to enter into discussions upon abstract subjects. The strength tests on Levanzin and Succi are quite similar. A dyna- mometer was handed to the subject, who gave it a maximum pressure and returned it to the experimenter. Ten trials were made at intervals of one second with both the right and the left hand. The curve showing the record made by Levanzin is inter- esting. Langfeld describes it as follows (the subject was prob- ably left-handed): Both in the right (VII) and left hand (V) curves there is an initial falling off, which is more marked with the former hand. The latter, however, continues to fall to the llth day, on which day it takes a decided drop, while the former declines more gradu- ally to the ninth day, when it reaches its maximum. Both curves then rise to a maximum, which is reached by the left hand on the 16th day and by the right hand on the 12th day (the record of the first day not being considered in speaking of this maximum). The curves then fall, the left much more than the right, espe- cially in the middle of the series, the former reaching its mini- mum on the 31st day. Both curves show a slight end spurt. This is, as a glance at the curve will show, merely a rough pic- ture, there being decided rises and falls throughout.
On the day the fast began the dynamometer tests of the left hand averaged about 93 pounds. On the day the fast ended, about 88 pounds.
Other Factors Affecting the Curve of Work. — Efficiency engineers and psychologists are actively engaged in experimenta- tion upon many other factors which may affect the worker and his output. One such form of experimentation is upon the effect of distraction (introduction of conflicting stimuli). In every business office or factory there are, of course, noises of machinery, 380 PSYCHOLOGY typewriters, telephone conversations and the like. Morgan 5 has shown that where the stimulating value of the problem is kept high loss in the output from any function through distraction is very much less than is popularly supposed (although the subject exerts greater muscular effort, presses down harder upon the keys, etc.). It is well known that sudden noises and those in- frequently met with have a disturbing effect on account of their tendency to arouse the fear reaction. Where the disturbances are regular the phenomenon of adaptation enters in and the worker ceases to be disturbed by extraneous stimuli. One of the most striking illustrations of this was observed in the Army. In the Air Personnel office when the force was small typewriters had to be stopped when long-distance calls were answered. As the pressure of the work increased and as the office force trebled and quadrupled, it was no uncommon sight to see a man answering a long-distance telephone call with fifteen or twenty typewriters going in his immediate neighborhood and a hundred or more going in the one large room. Again, while experimentation over short periods of time may show that such stimuli are without immediate effect, it still seems safest to have offices and factories arranged so that the worker is as free as possible from extraneous disturbances. The wear and tear on the human organism is probably a positive thing even though temporary laboratory studies fail to give marked evidence of it.
Recently a large number of experiments have been made upon the most satisfactory systems of lighting. Indeed, there is 8 Morgan worked with an apparatus in which the subject had to press a key similar to a typewriter key a certain number of times when a certain symbol appeared. The activity was thus possibly not very different from typewriting. As the subject continued to make his adjustments a fire-bell with an eight-inch gong was sounded directly behind and eight feet away. Bells of other types were used and various buzzers. Phonographic records were also.played. Some of his conclusions are as follows: The initial or shock effect of the noise is to retard the speed of the work. After this initial retardation there is an increase of speed. During distraction extra pressure is exerted upon the keys and verbal articulation occurs, as is shown by changes in the breathing. By means of this additional muscular effort put forth the amount of work done per unit of time is not materially decreased.
THE ORGANISM AT WORK 381 now a well-organized society of illuminating engineers. There is general agreement that bright lights are disturbing and that evenness and uniformity in illumination rather than great in- tensity are the conditions to be striven for except in those cases where the task demands high intensity, as in drafting and the doing of fine work generally.
A General Caution on Efficiency Methods. — It seems that a general caution on all efficiency experimentation is not out of place here. In recent years there has been a constant tendency to turn to the study of the man: the technic and machine sides of industry have been worked up to a point of maximum efficiency. Output if increased must come from a better understanding of man. Psychologists have aided and abetted industry in solving this problem. When the improved output comes from selecting the most suitable man for the task, from eliminating waste ef- fort, improving training methods and allowing recreation and proper periods of rest, such efforts are in the right direction. But the industries are undoubtedly abusing the situation. Every effort is being made, by the bonus system, appeal to loyalty, patriotism and pride, to grind as much out of the organism as possible in the shortest space of time. We would not stay the advance of efficiency engineering for a moment, but we would urge that every new device for getting increased output from the worker should, before being recommended and adopted, be studied from the standpoint of its effect upon the total activity of the worker — in popular terms, its effect upon his happiness and comfort.
THE RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF THE Two SEXES.
Sex Differentiation. — Probably no other subject, unless it be that of alcohol, has had so many partisan observations made upon it as that of the relative efficiency of men and women. There are so many variable factors which are not at present under con- trol that everything which may be discovered by putting the two sexes to a test must be looked upon as being purely provisional. The question as to whether there are distinctive differences dis- playing themselves in the infancy of the two sexes has never been 382 PSYCHOLOGY worked out with any degree of sureness. Certain school observa- tions would tend to show that there is a difference from the beginning in the activities of the male and female child; in the things they make with their hands, in the things that they col- lect, and in the speed with which they acquire certain functions. It has been stated recently that during the first few grades there are as many good writers among boys as among girls, but that after this period is passed the girls are, as a rule, very much better writers than the boys, the handwriting of the boys becom- ing more or less careless and showing great individual variation. In regard to early differentiation of activities of both the in- stinctive and habit types it seems safe to say that the conditions from the beginning are different. We do not have common social education for boys and girls: almost immediately the girl is swept into one system and the boy into another — from infancy they are differentiated as to their dress, their general activity and the things that they are allowed to play with. Until the two sexes are brought up side by side and under exactly the same conditions, no reliable conclusions in this division of the prob- lem can be obtained. A good many statements are current with respect to later instinctive and emotional activity. It is stated also that men are more pugnacious than women and that this gives a reason for the greater vocational aggressiveness of the male and also that the male is more variable in tendencies than the female, but there are no reliable data to support these asser- tions. In the better class of society men are taught to protect women and never to "strike a woman" and where possible to avoid a quarrel with a woman. In the humbler walks of life the police courts show probably more quarrels and fights among women neighbors than among the men in the same locality. On account of having less physical strength women do not engage in actual physical combat with men very often and yet this is not to be generalized in any sense. It is also stated that parental love is stronger in women than in men. Here again we find the influence of the group as a whole at work upon the individual. Men are not less fond of their children than women are, but they cannot nurse them nor are they willing to be bored by THE ORGANISM AT WORK 383 looking after their hourly needs and since they are stronger they, in general, have their way. This is made more easily p&os- sible by the fact that as society is constructed the man can more readily than the woman win the bread for the family. The divorce courts show that the sticking point in many separations is the child. There would be a great many more separations than at present if the children did not have to go with one or with the other parent. If parental love (which is largely of the asso- ciational and non-instinctive type) were not as strong in the man as in the woman there would not be this eternal legal battle for the child. Indeed, an argument may be advanced here for a really stronger attachment for the child in the male than in the female, since by getting the child the amount of alimony coming to the woman is greatly increased and her social position made more secure.
In regard to physical characteristics it is generally admitted that women have a smaller stature and less physical strength and that these differences unquestionably produce some difference in the possibility of certain motor acquisitions: for example, it is all but impossible for a woman to learn to throw a ball or other object with speed and accuracy. Again a comparison of athletic records shows that the speed of women in the 100-yard dash is very much less than that of men. Whether this is due to structural differ- ences or to the lack of an adequate system of coaching does not appear. In certain other manual activities, such as playing ten- nis, swimming, diving, speed in running a typewriter the women are not so greatly at a disadvantage. Formerly a good deal was made of the asserted difference in brain weight between men and women. Mall has shown that the difference in brain weight is purely a difference in the relative size of the two sexes.