Locke seems to me in error here. If the child learns to look for a return, he is no longer liberal or self-denying. If he does not learn to expect his gifts to " pay," there is no object gained by always rewarding them.
This is an odd instance how h priori reasoning may deceive in such matters. That some men do court danger for danger's sake is well established bv experience. There was nothing paradoxical in Dryden's description of Locke's friend "Achitophel:" "Pleased with the danger, when the waves ran high He sought the storm."
The steps in Locke's reasoning seem satisfactory. Nobody likes harm. Danger is the risk of harm. If we do not like a thing we cannot like the risk of it. But there is a flaw in this reasoning some- where. Perhaps the excitement attending risk is pleasant, though the harm when it actually happens is unpleasant.
Having "taken counsel's opinion," I learn that there 'is no such practice now, and no indication in the legal authorities that there was such a practice in Locke's time. The present rules as to Jurymen are governed by 6 Geo. IV. c. 50 (which consolidated previous statutes) and 15 and a6 Vict. c. 107. As we find in these two Acts no mention of butchers, there probably never was any legislation about them; and the practice of excluding them from Juries of life and death if it ever existed was a practice merely.
§ 122, p. 106, 1. 35. " The right improvement and exercise of our reason being the highest perfection that a man can attain to^* Locke's estimate of reason is seen in the following passage: "Try all things, hold fast that which is good," is a divine rule Coming from the Father of light and truth; and it is hard to know what other way men can come at truth to lay hold of it, if they do not dig and search for it as for gold and hid treasure; but he that does so must have much earth and rubbish before he gets the pure metal; sand and pebbles and dross usually lie blended with it; but the gold is nevertheless gold, and will enrich the man that employs his pains to seek and separate it. Neither is there any danger lest he should be deceived by the mixture. Every man carries about him a touchstone, if he will make use of it, to distinguish ^bstantial gold from superficial glitterings, truth from appearances. And indeed the use and benefit of this touchstone, which is natural reason, is spoiled and lost only by assuming prejudices, over- weening presumption, and narrowing our minds. The want of exer- cising it in the full extent of things intelligible, is that which weakens and extinguishes this noble faculty in us. (C, of U, % iii. 3.)
§ i30» P* ii2>!• 14* ** Nothing that may form children's minds is to be overlooked.^' In this large view of the educator's task lies the chief merit of the TTioughts. The Jesuits had been the first educators after the Re- nascence who were not instructors merely.
A gig is here something of the top kind. The dictionaries quote Shakespeare (Z. Z. Z. iv. 3): **to see great Hercules whipping a ^^."
I have said in the Introduction that the main value of Locke's work lies in its emphasizing and expanding Montaigne's great lesson — Mducation before Instruction! The Renascence brought about the substitution of instruction for education, and the two have been con- fused ever since. Those who thought of nothing but teaching children took no notice of their games. Rabelais however saw the value of games; and Montaigne shows his singular insight when he says, *'// faut noter que les jeux des enfants ne sont pas jeux; et les faut juger en eux comme leurs plus sirieuses actions. We must take note that the games of children are not games in their eyes; and we must regard these as their most serious actions " {Essais, liv. i.e. 12), Montaigne is here thinking of the way in which children throw themselves into their games; but the fact that they do thus enter into them heart and soul gives to the games a great effect, and therefore makes them interesting to the educator. David Stow urged teachers to go to the playground to learn about children. But when the educator becomes interested in the games he will wish to get them organized with a view to certain educational effects. This is what Locke recommends in the text (cf. § 152, p. 132 supra), and what Froebel has worked out in the Kindergarten. The germ of the Kindergarten seems to lie in these few words of Locke's. While on this subject I may mention an excellent little book called IVhai is Flay) by Dr Strachan (Edinburgh, Douglas, price is.).
When childhood is passed eames are mostly organized by the bojrs themselves, and till lately the Doy*s life " out of school *' has not had much attention from schoolmasters. Where the day-school sjrstem prevails as in Germany the boy belongs as much to the fiunily as to the school. This has of course some great advantages, but it has two great drawbacks: it turns schoolmasters into mere teachers, and it renders vigorous games almost impossible. In the French fyc^ the masters who are concerned with the boys' life out of school are (with the exception of the censeur and prauiseur who have genlhd control) persons of inferior grade and influence. In English public schools the fames and out-of-school life generally are organized by the boys, 'artly from their being overworked, partly from the traditional system, the masters as a rule leave the boys very much to themselves. Any one who turns to the Report of the Public Schools Commission must see that in time past the boys were more successful in organizing the games than the masters in organizing the studies. There have been great improvements since that Report came out, but there is still in my opinion too much separation in thoughts and interests between mastera and boys. It is a good thing for the boys to act for themselves, but they suffer, intellectually at least, by living in such an isolated boy- wofld. (See also NoU to p. 51, L i.)
show any suspicion ofit,^ Dr Arnold's practice is well known from a saying of his pupils men- tioned by Stanley: "It is a shame to tell Arnold a lie; he alwajrs believes one [1. e, takes one's word]. " The wisdom of this was some time since questioned by Mr Lake in a letter in the Spectator, If we follow Locke we are relieved from the obligation to be quite sincere in our in- tercourse with the young; but it is not easy to understand how they are to become sincere in an atmosphere of deceit. If we are, as Locke says, cameleon-like, nothing will make the young straightforward but straightforwardness in those who bring them up. Still, we are not war- ranted in showing suspicion when as far as we know we have never been deceived; and every one will do more to keep a good character than to gain one. Sincerity is I believe essential, but we ought to show and to feel a readiness to believe where belief is possible.
§ ^38, p. 118, 1. 13. " Children let alone would be no more a/raid in the dark than in the sunshine" Locke the great enemy of h3rpotheses seems here under the influence of an hypothesis, viz. that all our conceptions depend solely on what is external to us, so that before the age of reason we may be taught one thing as easily as another. Would he have asserted that you might train children never to feel safe except in the dark? As usual he seems to think little of the strength of imagination in children.
To good breeding Locke attached the very greatest importance: and he seems from Lady Masham's account to have been very intolerant; qf its opposite. Having lived among distinguished people both in England and on the Continent he had had abundant opportunity of generalizing on this subject, and §§ 141 — 146 form an admirable essay on manners, so true to nature that it can never become obsolete. See p. 994, "Civility."
As I have already said {Introduction and notes to p. 75, 1. 7 and p. 113, 1. 31) I consider this sentence gives us the gist of Locke's pedagogy. It was the great merit of Montaigne and Locke that their minds were not engrossed like those of the Renascence scholars by "learning," and they therefore thought and led others to think of the learner. As Michelet has put it, in their system the main thing was **non PoHet, lesavoir; mais le sujet^ ^est Phomme** (Nos Filsj p. 170.) Hettner m confirmation of this has called attention to Locke s letter to Lord Peterborough on the choice of a tutor. This letter contains nothing but what we find in the Thoughts; but it is interesting, as it shows us how settled Locke's convictions were: "I must beg leave to own that I differ a little from your Lordship in what you propose; your Lordship would have a thorough scholar, and I think it not much matter whether he be any great scholar or no; if he but understand Latin well, and have a general scheme of the sciences, I think that enough: but I would have him well-bred, well- tempered; a man that having been conversant with the world and amongst men, would have great application in observing the humour and genius of my Lord your son; and omit nothing that might help to form his mind, and dispose him to virtue, knowledge, and industry. This I look upon as the great business of a tutor; this is putting life into his pupil, which when he has got, masters of all kinds are easily to be had; for when a young gentleman has got a relish of knowledge, the love and credit of doing well spurs him on; he will with or without teachers, make great advances in whatever he has a mind to. Mr Newton learned his mathematics only of himself; and another friend of mine, Greek (wherein he is very well skilled) without a master; though both these studies seem more to require the help of a tutor than almost any other." In a letter to the same correspondent on the same subject, 1697, he says: *' When a man has got an entrance into any of the sciences, it will De time then to depend on himself, and rely upon his own under- standing, and exercise his own faculties, which is the only way to improvement and mastery." See note to ** Magisterially dictating," p. 124.
These were the only studies of miiversal obligation, and both had been established in the Middle Ages. The old Trivium which all the "educated" passed through consisted of Grammar, Logic and Rhetoric. The first was supposed to be "absolved" at school, 3ie other two at the University. Logic still lingers at Oxford, though it has vanished from Cambridge. We find Locke very strongly against the disputations common in his time; but he seems to think some knowledge of logic should precede the study of mathematics. {Sit^ Introduction^ p. xxxi.)
Logic however was then connected with "disputations" or ** oppo- sitions," and of these Locke disapproved very strongly. " Disputations in logic and other philosophy belong rather to the University," says BrinsTy, and the schools should respect the Univeraty's privilege; yet he tells of schools "where the scholars have been able to dispute ex tempore of any ordinary moral question which you should propound unto them." {Ludus Literarius Chap. xviL 206.)
For the curriculum of the first naif of the 17th century see two valuable articles by Professor T. S. Baynes ("What Shakespeare learnt at School") in Eraser's AlagoaUtu for November and December, 1879.
Games have been used for instruction from time immemorial. Plato praises the Egyptian practice of teaching arithmetic in games (Laws, vii. 819, quoted by A. S. Wilkins, National Education in Greece). In Rabelais too cards are brought in after dinner to learn "a thousand pretty tricks all grounded on arithmetic." Perhaps such games as Locke suggests for reading and spelling would have become more common if dice had generally kept good company.
§ 15^) P* 133* L 14* **Some easy pleasant book suited to his capacity should be put into his hands ^ In most schools, schools for the poor especially, reading is still treated too much as a mechanical art, and is usually taken as sy- nonymous with reading aloud. Schoolmasters and school-managers have till quite lately neglected the obvious truth, that if the book is pleasant the entertainment they find in it will draw the children on. Locke's words remain only too true: "These baits seem wholly neg- lected in the ordinary method; and 'tis usually long before learners find any use or pleasure in reading, which may tempt them to it" Since the Inspectors have been empowered to require ** intelligent" reading in England as well as Scotland there has been some improvement; but the supply of "pleasant books" is still far too small, and there is seldom a scholars' lending library. We have not yet found (and probably never shall find) a better reading-book for children than the one Locke suggests. Why should not i^sop be made a permanent classic in our elementary schools as Virgil is in our higher scnools?
In the 17th century although the mechanical art of producing picture-books was in its infancj^, the value of such books for instruc- tion was better imderstood than it is perhaps now. The most celebrated pictorial school-book ever published was the Orbis Pictus of Comenius (first edition, 1657). Considering the wonderful amount of skill and energy shown in illustrating children's periodicals it is strange that our artists now-a-days rarely meddle with school-books. Some good pic- ture-rolls have lately been published by Messrs Partridge and by the Religious Tract Society. On the Continent pictures are coming into use in all school-rooms. See e.^, the Kufut-histortsche BUderbogen published by Hunderstund, Leipzig, and for child«en Pfeififer's Bilder fur AnschauungS'Unterricht: Perthes, Gotha.
§ 160, p. 136, L 8. ** The first thing should he taught him is to hold his pen right^"* It would be very interesting to trace the changes that have taken place in handwriting and in the methods of teaching it. There seems nothing liable to such complete revolutions: witness the difference between a ladylike hand of the present day and that written by our mothers and grandmothers. A writer in the Spectator (Feb. 7, 1880) recommends that the pupils be allowed to hold their pen as they like, and this is often the practice though not the theory of masters. For the approved method in the 17th century see Brinsly's Ludus LUerarius^ chap. IV. He directs that each boy have pen, ink, paper, ruler, plummet, ruling-pen, pen-knife &c., also blotting-book. Each must make his own pen, as no one can attain to write fair without that skill. ** Next unto this, cause your scholler to hold his pen right, as neere unto the nebbe as he can, his thumbe and two fore-Bngers, almost closed to- gether, round about the neb, Hke unto a Cats foote, as some of the Scriveners doe terme it. Then let him leame to carry his pen as lightly as he can, to glide or swimme upon the paper. " {Ludus Lit,, chap. iv. p. 30.) His plan of making the pupil go over writing with a dry pen is something like Locke's.
The plan here recommended had been tried by Locke with the children of the Quaker merchant Furly at Rotterdam. See Fox Bourne's Locke in this part of his work thinks too exclusively of ** the useful " in the narrowest sense of the word. Here he neglects the discipline of the sight, which is gained in drawing, a very real advantage I be- lieve, though it has lately been disputed by Professor Bain.
"Do nothing without the consent of Minerva," i.e. against the natural bent, against the grain.
This was not mentioned in first edition, but was added afterwards at the suggestion of W. Molyneux. Locke writes to Af olyneux (33 Aug. 1693), '* I am of your mind as to Short-hand: I myself learned it since I was a maji, but have forgot to put it in when I writ; as I have, I doubt not, Overseen a thousand other things which might have been said on this subject But it was only at first a short scheme for a friend, and is published to excite others to treat it more fully." I may mention that Dr Wormell, Head-master of the great School in Cowper Street* London, tells me ^at having introduced the teaching of short- hand simply as an art of use to people in business, he has found that it has great educational value in sharpening boys' wits, and gives a capital training in analysing sounds. It has too the great recommendation of being popular with boys. The system used is Pitman's.
§ 169, p. 138, 1. 3. ** The Latin tongue would easily be taught the same way [i.e, by taihing].** This experiment was tried with Montaigne. Locke also engaged a lady who could talk '* Latin and Greek" to teach the child "Mr Anthony," afterwards the third Lord Shaftesbury. See In- troduction.
This and § 169, p. I491 are the only passages I have observed in which Locke even hints at what the Germans call Anschauungs-unter- richtf ue. instruction through the senses. We should have expected his philosophical views to have interested him in this demand of " the Innovators." But he seems to care little about *' realism *' or the study of things; and here he does not get beyond " verbal realism.'* I infer that he had not read Comenius, and perhaps had not heard of Ratichius.
The Spaniard Francis Sanctius in the i6th century wrote a learned work called Minerva, seu de causis lingua Latina Commentarius, This is an elaborate treatise in Latin on the grammar of the Latin language; and with the notes of Scoppius and Penzonius it makes two formidable- looking volumes. If the study of Latin grammar were put off till the young gentleman were able (and willing) to study Sanctius, Scoppius and Perizonius, this looks a little like fixing it for the Greek Kalends. But Locke would avoid a common error in teachers of languages, of the classical lan^ages especially, who try to make boys "leam" gram- matical niceties entirely beyond their comprehension. In the struggle, as Professor Seeley has well said, the children do not become gram- marians but the grammar becomes childish. Many of us spent much time and effort as bo^ in learning and appljdng such '* rules" as that "when two substantives of different meaning come together the latter is put in the Genitive case. " The absurdities of the old granunar were exposed by a contemporary of Locke's, Richard Johnson, sometime Master of the King's School, Canterbury, whose Grammatical Com- mentaries appeared in 1706. The Public School Primer is no doubt far less childish than the book it superseded. Whether children are made grammarians by it is another question.
§ 169, p. 149, 1. 17. ** yinn as much other real kncwUdge with it as you can. " Here Locke seems to join ** the Innovators," or at least to go a little way with them in their demand, ** Things^ not words!" The word *'real'' too is used in their sense connecting it with res (the ^^ord ReaUs according to Meyer's Conversations Lexicon was first used in 1614 by Taubmann). But to this important field for instruction he only gives a dozen lines.
In a previous note (p. 130 ad in.) I quoted a passage from Brinsly which shows ex tempore speaking was practised in the higher classes of schools in the first half of the 17th century. But since '* disputations" died out there has been no use of the living voice except in construing or saying by heart. In German schools the practice is common of the pupils giving in their own words a continuous narrative of what they have been studying. This viva voce practice is a very good training in the use of the mother tongue. See § 189, p. 163, 1. 38.
This is a most astounding assertion from one of Milton's con- temporaries; but we must remember that Milton * * dwelt apart " from all the so-called poets of his age, and that the best poetry then popular was Waller's and Dryden's. Still it seems harsn to associate such poetry as theirs with gaming; and we cannot help connecting this out- burst against the Muse with Locke's own unsuccessful addresses to her. It is only the writing of poetry that he would repress so sternly. The reading of *' poetical writings for diversion and delight " he recommends to ** a young gentleman." (See Appendix A.)
§ i75» P' '53»!• io» **' their being forced to learn by heart great parcels of the authors" Here Locke follows Montaigne in his celebrated " Savoir par ceeur tiest fas savoir. To know by heart is not to know,** Knowing is accoroing to these writers the perception of the mind. This perception may be caused by a form of words, but when obtained it must be quite independent of an^ words. Knowing by heart then is distinct from knowing. It may indeed coexist with knowledge, but it is a different thing. But this definition of knowledge — the perception of the mind — limits it to intellectual ideas; and this limitation is not usually ad- mitted. Such ideas may be associated with beautiful or vigorous words, and then the words themselves may fitly become a subject of know- ledge. Unfortunately the knowledge of a form of words is more easily acquired and much more easily tested than any other kind of know- ledge; and it has therefore been made far too much of in instruction. This has led in some cases to a violent reaction, and the practice of "memorizing" has been entirely given up. But it is a great gain, as Locke himself admits, to have in our minds beautiful forms of words which recall beautiful thoughts. The main thing is to require the young to learn only what is worth remembering, and then to take care that this is remembered and recalled from time to time till it becomes a settled possession of the mind. " We learn by heart passages from the poets when we are boys," says Aeschines, "in order that we may have the benefit of them when we are men " ^Aeschin. against Ktes. § i35> quoted by J. H. Krause, ErtUhung^ bet den Griichtn^ p. 90). There are some excellent remarks on learning by heart, and against learning "great parcels of the authors," in a work certainly known to Locke, as he translated part of it into English, the Port- Royalist Nicole's Pensies, The chapter I refer to is <^ V Education d*un prince.
The advantages of learning poetry by heart in our youth have been dwelt upon by Hallam in a passage worth quoting. Speaking of MUton, he says: " Then the remembrance of early reading came over his dark and lonely path like the moon emeiging fix>m the douds. Then it was that the Muse was truly his; not only as she poured her creative inspiration into his mind, but as the daughter of Memory coming with fragments of ancient melodies, the voice of Euripides, and Homer and Tasso; sounds that he had loved in youth and treasured up for the solace of his age. They who though not enduring the calamity of Milton have known what it is when afar from books, in solitude or in travelling, or in the intervals of worldly care, to feed on poetical recol- lections, to murmur over the beautiful lines whose cadence has long delighted their ear; to recall the sentiments and images which retain by association the charm that early years once gave them — they will feel the inestimable value of committing to the memory in the prime of its power what it will easily receive and indelibly retain. I know not indeed whether an education that deals much with poetry such as is still usual in England has any more solid argument among many in its favour than that it lays the foundation of intellectual pleasure at the other extreme of life."
Mr Henry Latham in his book On the Action of Examinations has distinguished between different kinds of memoi^, the "carrying" memory, the "analytical'* memory and the "assimilative" memory. He points out that the memory grows to the circumstances in which she finds herself. If we would train the memory then we must train it in the way in which it is required to work. A barrister would be no match for an actor in committing to memory a particular form of words, but then the actor would be no matdi for the barrister in remembering the main points of a case. The school-boy memory grows to the circumstances in which it finds itself, and becomes very expert at "carrying;" but this skill though useful for examinations may easily be acquired at the escpense of more valuable power. Those who know how to make use of^ "the Three A*s," as they have been called, Attention, Arrangement and Association, will perhaps come to a different conclusion from Locke, who thinks the memory not capa- ble of much help and amendment by any exercise or endeavour of ours. It is remarkable that Locke who has written of the Associa- tion of Ideas does not name here this "strong combination'* which "the mind makes in itself either voluntarily or by chance.'* {Of Human Understandings Bk. it Ch. 33, § 6. See too what he says of memory, same bk. ch. 10).
§ 176, p. 154, 1. 6. *^ An impression made on beeswax or lead will not last so ling as on brass or steel. ^* In speaking of the mind we are compelled to use similes and meta- phors drawn from the material world; but unless we are on the look-out these are sure to lead us into great confusion and error.
Dr Johnson maintained that the mind could retain one thing as well as another: to deny it would be the same as sa3dng that the hand could hold silver money but not copper. It might be retorted that to affirm it is like saying that the hand can hold a bit of ice as long as a bit of wood. Locke is more careful, but Hallam finds great fault with him for his use of analogies. In the following the figure is at least ef- fective: * * There seems to be a constant decay of all our ideas, even those virhich are struck deepest and in minds the most retentive, so that if they be not sometimes renewed by repeated exercise of the senses, or reflection in those kind of objects which at first occasioned them, the print wears out and at last there is nothing to be seen. Thus the ideas as well as the children of our youth often die before us; and our minds represent to us those tombs to which we are approaching, where though the brass and marble remain the inscriptions are effaced by time, and the imagery moulders away." {Of H. U. Cliap. on Retention).
Frank Masham. See Introduction p. xxxix.
Christopher Helvicus or Helwig, a celebrated scholar in his day, was bom near Frankfurt, 1581, and died at the age of 35 (161 7). He studied at Marburg, and took his Bachelor's degree at 14 years old, and at 1 5 was celebrated for his Greek verses. He was afterwards professor at Giessen. His name occurs in the history of education, as he was one of the professors appointed to examine the system of Ratichius. His daughter married the amusing writer on education, J. B. Schuppius.
immediately after Grammar.'^* The three formed the Triznum. See note on p. 229 ad fin.
I do not know how the final s crept in here. The author referred to is Vincent Voiture (1598 — 1648), whose letters from Spain, &c. to the habitues of the Hotel de Rambouillet were published and became very celebrated. Pope was fond of them. "They give some idea,** says Voltaire, "of the superficial graces of that epistolatory style which is by no means the best, because it aims at nothing higher than pleasantry and amusement. ** Robert Boyle had once an immense reputation. In Chalmers's Biographical Dietwnary he is called *'the most illustrious philosopher of modem times." This is reduced in the Encyclopadia BritannicM to ** one of the greatest and best of modem philosophers;" and still further abatement may be possible. But in the T7th century he was thought a far greater man than Locke, an estimate partly due to the circumstance that the father of the one was an earl, and of the other a countiT attorney. Boyle was five or six years older than Locke, having been bom in i6if. He died in 169 1. Boyle formed at Oxford a school of Experimental Natural Science, and was the leader in apply- ing the principles of Bacon to the discovery of Nature's laws. Locke was among the number of his friends and correspondents.
Coste translates simply monter h cheval. But why **^«i/ horse'*? I have heard it suggest^ that " the great horse" was the war horse as opposed to the palfrey used for travelling: and thb I believe is the true explanation. Lord Herbert of Cherbury says he had excellent masters, English, French, and Italian in *' riding the great horse and fencing," and he gives elaborate directions *'how to make a horse fit for wars." It will be remembered that Marmion has his war-horse led while he him- self rides a palfrey.
§ aoo, p. 177, 1. 8. ^* Nullum numen^ dr'r. "No deity is absent where there is Pmdence." A line in Juvenal Locke seldom quotes authorities. He might here have referred to Rabelais and Montaigne.
§ 2 16, p. 187, 1. 4. *' He must be back again by one and twenty to marry."
Locke seems from this passage to have been dissatisfied with the early marriage of the second Lord Shaftesbury, a marriage which he himself was concerned in. See Introduction, p. xxv.
fashioned as one pleases, " This conception which explains many of Locke's peculiar suggestioDS differs from the theory that children have evil propensities, and that education is in a great measure restraint. It differs no less from Froebel's theory that everything is contained in the child as the oak lies m the acorn.
INDEX.
Accounts, keeping:, 183, 183