Impure gold is of whitish colour. It shall be fused with lead of four times the quantity of the impurity. When gold is rendered brittle owing to its contamination with lead, it shall be heated with dry cowdung (sushkapatala). When it splits into pieces owing to hardness, it shall be drenched (after heating) into oil mixed with cowdung (tailagomaye).
Mine gold which is brittle owing to its contamination with lead shall be heated wound round with cloth (pdkapatrdni kritvd); and hammered on a wooden anvil. Or it may be drenched in the Kautilya's Arthashastra mixture made of mushroom and vajrakhanda (Antiquorum).
Tutthodgata, what which is extracted from the mountain, Tuttha; gaudika, that which is the product of the country known as Gauda; kdmbuka, that which is extracted from the mountain, Kambu; and chdkravdlika, that which is extracted from the mountain Chakravdla are the varieties of silver.
Silver which is white, glossy, and ductile is the best; and that which is of the reverse quality is bad.
Impure silver shall be heated with lead of one-fourth the quantity of the impurity.
That which becomes full of globules, white, glowing, and of the colour of curd is pure.
When the streak of pure gold (made on touch-stone) is of the colour of turmeric, it is termed suvarna. When from one to sixteen kdkanis of gold in a suvarna (of sixteen mdshakas) are replaced by from one to sixteen kdkanis of copper, so that the copper is inseparably alloyed with the whole mass of the remaining quantity of the gold, the sixteen varieties (carats) of the standard of the purity of gold (shodasavarnakdh) will be obtained.
Having first made a streak with suvarna on a touchstone, then (by the side of the streak) a streak with a piece of the gold (to be compared with it) shall be made.
Whenever a uniform streak made on the even surface of a touch-stone can be wiped off or swept away or when the streak is due to the sprinkling of any glittering powder (gairika) by the nail on touch-stone, then an attempt for deception can be inferred.
Kautilya's Arthashastra If, with the edge of the palm dipped in a solution, of vermilion (jdtihinguldka) or of sulphate of iron (pushpakdsisa) in cow's urine, gold (suvarna) is touched, it becomes white.
A touch-stone with soft and shining splendour is the best. The touch-stone of the Kalinga country with the colour of green beans is also the best. A touch- stone of even or uniform colour is good in sale or purchase (of gold). That which possesses the colour of an elephant, tinged with green colour and capable of reflecting light (pratirdgi) is good in selling gold. That which is hard, durable, and of uneven colour and not reflecting light, is good for purchasers (krayahitah). That which is grey, greasy, of uniform colour, soft, and glossy is the best.
That (gold) which, when heated, keeps the same colour (tdpo bahirantascha samah), is as glittering as tender sprouts, or of the colour of the flower of kdrandaka (?) is the best.
That which is black or blue (in gold) is the impurity (aprdptaka).
We shall deal with the balance and weights under the "Superintendent of Weights and Measures" (Chap. XIX, Book II). In accordance with the instructions given thereunder silver and gold (rupyasuvarnam) may be given in exchange.
No person who is not an employee shall enter the gold-smiths' office. Any person who so enters shall be beheaded (uchchhedyah).
Any workman who enters the office with gold or silver shall have to forfeit the same.
Goldsmiths who are engaged to prepare various kinds of Kautilya's Arthashastra ornaments such as kdnchana (pure gold), prishita (hollow ornaments), tvashtri (setting gems in gold) and tapaniya; as well as blowers and sweepers shall enter into or exit from the office after their person and dress are thoroughly examined. All of their instruments together with their unfinished work shall be left where they have been at work. That amount of gold which they have received and the ornamental work which they were doing shall be put in the centre of the office. (Finished articles) shall be examined both morning and evening and be locked up with the seal of both the manufacturer and the superintendent (kdrayatri, the owner getting the articles prepared).
Kshepana, guna, and kshudra ate three kinds of ornamental work.
Setting jewels (kdcha, glass bead) in gold is termed kshepana.
Thread- making or string making is called guna.
Solid work (ghana), hollow work (sushira), and the manufacture of globules furnished with a rounded orifice is what is termed kshudra, low or ordinary work.
For setting jewels in gold, five parts of kdnchana (pure gold) and ten parts of gold alloyed with four parts of copper or silver shall be the required quantity (mdna). Here the pure gold shall be preserved from the impure gold.
For setting jewels in hollow ornaments (prishitakdcha karmanah), three parts of gold to hold the jewel and four parts for the bottom (shall be the required quantity).
For the work of tvashtri, copper and gold shall be mixed in Kautilya's Arthashastra equal quantities.
For silver article either solid or hollow, silver may be mixed with half of the amount of gold; or by making use of the powder or solution of vermilion, gold equal to one-fourth the amount of silver of the ornament may be painted (vdsayet) on it.
Pure and glittering gold is tapaniya. This combined with an equal quantity of lead and heated with rock-salt (saindhav'ika) to melting point under dry cowdung becomes the basis of gold alloys of blue, red, white, yellow (harita), parrot and pidgeon colours.
The colouring ingredient of gold is one kdkani of tikshna which is of the colour of the neck of a peacock, tinged with white, and which is dazzling and full of copper (pitapiirnitam).
Pure or impure silver (tdra) may be heated four times with asthituttha (copper sulphate mixed with powdered bone), again four times with an equal quantity of lead, again four times with dry copper sulphate (sushkatuttha) again three times in skull (kapdla), and lastly twice in cowdung. Thus the silver acted upon seventeen times by tuttha (shodasatutthdtikrdntam) and lastly heated to white light with rock salt may be made to alloy with suvarna to the extent of from one kdkani to two Mdshas. Then the suvarna attains white colour and is called sveta-tdra.
When three parts of tapaniya (pure gold) are melted with thirty-two parts of svetatdra, the compound becomes reddish white (svetalohitakam). When three parts of tapaniya are combined with thirty-two parts of copper, the compound becomes yellow (pita, red!). Also when three parts of the colouring ingredient (rdgatribhdga, i.e., tikshna referred to above) are heated with tapaniya, the compound becomes yellowish red (pita). When two parts of sveta-tdra and one part of tapaniya are heated, Kautilya's Arthashastra the whole mass becomes as green as mudga (Phraseolus Mungo). When tapaniya is drenched in a solution of half the quantity of black iron (kdldyasa), it becomes black.
When tapaniya is twice drenched in (the above) solution mixed with mercury (rasa), it acquires the colour of the feathers of a parrot.
Before these varieties of gold are put to use, their test streak shall be taken on touchstone. The process of assaying tikshna and copper shall be well understood. Hence the various counterweights (avaneyimdna) used in weighing diamonds, rubies, pearls, corals, and coins, (rupa), as well as the proportional amount of gold and silver necessary for various kinds of ornaments can be well understood.
Uniform in colour, equal in the colour of test streak to the standard gold, devoid of hollow bulbs, ductile (sthira), very smooth, free from alloys, pleasing when worn as an ornament, not dazzling though glittering, sweet in its uniformity of mass, and pleasing the mind and eyes,— these are the qualities of tapaniya, pure gold.
[Thus ends Chapter XIII, "The Superintendent of Gold in the Goldsmiths' Office," in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of thirty-fourth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XIV. THE DUTIES OF THE STATE GOLDSMITH IN THE HIGH ROAD.
Kautilya's Arthashastra THE State Goldsmith shall employ artisans to manufacture gold and silver coins (rupyasuvarna) from the bullion of citizens and country people.
The artisans employed in the office shall do their work as ordered and in time. When under the excuse that time and nature of the work has not been prescribed, they spoil the work, they shall not only forfeit their wages, but also pay a fine of twice the amount of their wages. When they postpone work, they shall forfeit one-fourth the amount of their wages and pay a fine of twice the amount of the forfeited wages.
(The goldsmith of the mint) shall return (to the owners coins or ornaments) of the same weight, and of the same quality (varna) as that of the bullion (nikshepa) which they received (at the mint). With the exception of those (coins) which have been worn out or which have undergone diminution (kshinaparisirna), they shall receive the same coins (back into the mint) even after the lapse of a number of years.
The state goldsmith shall gather from the artisans employed in the mint information concerning pure gold, metallic mass (pudgala), coins (lakshana), and rate of exchange (prayoga).
In getting a suvarna coin (of 16 mdshas) manufactured from gold or from silver, one kdkani (one-fourth mdsha) weight of the metal more shall be given to the mint towards the loss in manufacture.
The colouring ingredient (rdgaprakshepa) shall be two kdkanis of tikshna (copper sulphate?) one-sixth of which will be lost during the manufacture.
When the quality (varna) of a coin less than the standard of a mdsha is lowered, the artisans (concerned) shall be punished with Kautilya's Arthashastra the first amercement. When its weight is less than the standard weight, they shall be punished with the middlemost amercement. Deception in balance or weights shall be punished with the highest amercement. Deception in the exchange of manufactured coins (kritabhdndopadhau) shall also be punished with the highest amercement.
Whoever causes (gold or silver articles) to be manufactured in any place other than the mint or without being noticed by the state goldsmith shall be fined 12 pands, while the artisan who does that work shall, if found out, be punished with twice the above fine. If he is not found out, measures such as are described in Book IV shall be taken to detect him. When thus detected, he shall be fined 200 pands or shall have his fingers cut off.
Weighing balance and counterweights shall be purchased from the superintendent in charge of them. Otherwise a fine of 12 pands shall be imposed.
Compact work (ghana), compact and hollow work (ghanasushira), soldering (samyuhya), amalgamation (avalepya), enclosing (samghdtya), and gilding (ydsitakam) are the various kinds of artisan work (kdrukasma).
False balances (tuldvishama), removal (apasdrana), dropping (visrdvana), folding (petaka), and confounding (pinka) are the several means employed by goldsmiths to deceive the public.
False balance are — that of bending arms (sanndmini); that of high helm or pivot (utkarnika); that of broken head (bhinnamastaka); that of hollow neck (upakanthi); that of bad strings (kusikya); that of bad cups or pans (sakatukakshya); that which is crooked or shaking (pdrivellya); and that which is combined with a magnet (ayaskdnta).
Kautilya's Arthashastra When, by what is called Triputaka which consists of two parts of silver and one part of copper, an equal portion of pure alluvial gold is replaced, that deceitful act is termed copper-removal (triputakd-vasdritam); when, by copper, an equal portion of gold is replaced, that act is termed copper-removal (sulbdvasdritam); when by vellakaan equal portion of gold is replaced, it is termed vellaka-removal; and when pure alluvial gold is replaced by that gold half of which is mixed with copper, it is termed gold removal (hemdvasdritam).
A crucible with a base metallic piece hidden in it; metallic excrement; pincers; a pair of tongs; metallic pieces (jongani); and borax (sauvarchikdlavanam), — these are the several things which are made use of by goldsmiths in stealing gold.
When, intentionally causing the crucible (containing the bullion) to burst, a few sandlike particles of the metal are picked up along with other particles of a base metal previously put therein, and the whole is wrought into a mass for the intended coin or ornament), this act is termed dropping (visravana); or when examining the folded or inlaid leaves of an ornament (dchitakapatraparikshdydm) deception is perpetrated by substituting silver for gold, or when particles of a base metal are substituted for those of gold, it is termed dropping {visravana) likewise.
Folding (petaka) either firm (gddha) or loose (abhyuddhdrya) is practiced in soldering, in preparing amalgams, and in enclosing (a piece of base metal with two pieces of a superior metal).
When a lead piece (sisarupa— lead coin) is firmly covered over with gold leaf by means of wax (ashtaka), that act is termed gddhapetaka, firm folding; and when the same is loosely folded, it is termed loose folding.
Kautilya's Arthashastra In amalgams, a single or double layer (of a superior metal) is made to cover a piece (of base metal). Copper or silver may also be placed between two leaves (of a superior metal). A copper piece (sulbarupya) may be covered over with gold leaf, the surface and the edges being smoothened; similarly a piece of any base metal may be covered over with double leaf of copper or silver, the surface and the edges being smoothened.
The two forms of folding may be detected by heating, by testing on touch-stone (nikasha) or by observing absence of sound when it is rubbed (nissabdollekhana).
(They) find out loose folding in the acid juice of badardmla (Flacourtia Cataphracta or jujube fruit) or in salt water; — so much for folding (petaka).
In a compact and hollow piece (ghana-sushire rupe), small particles of gold-like mud (suvarnamrinvdlukdh) or bit of vermilion (hingulakalkah) are so heated as to make them firmly adhere to the piece inside. Even in a compact piece (dridhavdstuke rupe), the waxlike mud of Gdndhdra mixed with the particles of goldlike sand is so heated as to adhere to the piece. These two kinds of impurities are got rid of by hammering the pieces when red hot.
In an ornament or a coin (sapari-bhdnde vd rupe) salt mixed with hard sand (katusarkard) is so heated in flame as to make it firmly adhere to (the ornament or coin). This (salt and sand) can be got rid of by boiling (kvdthana).
In some pieces, mica may be firmly fixed inside by wax and covered over with a double leaf (of gold or silver). When such a piece with mica or glass inside is suspended in water (udake) one of its sides dips more than the other; or when pierced by a pin, the pin goes very easily in the layers of mica in the interior Kautilya's Arthashastra (pataldntareshu).
Spurious stones and counterfeit gold and silver may be substituted for real ones in compact and hollow pieces (ghanasushira). They are detected by hammering the pieces when red hot— so much for confounding (pinka).
Hence (the state goldsmith) shall have a thorough knowledge of the species, characteristics, colour, weight, and formation (pudgala-lakshana) of diamonds, precious stones (mani), pearls, corals and coins (rupa).
There are four ways of deception perpetrated when examining new pieces or repairing old ones: they are hammering, cutting, scratching and rubbing.
When, under the excuse of detecting the deception known as folding (petaka) in hollow pieces or in threads or in cups (made of gold or silver), the articles in question are hammered, that act is termed hammering.
When a lead piece (covered over with gold or silver leaf) is substituted for a real one and its interior is cut off, it is termed cutting (avachchhedanam).
When compact pieces are scratched by tikshna (copper sulphate?), that act is termed scratching (ullekhana).
When, by a piece of cloth painted with the powder of sulphuret of arsenic (haritdla), red arsenic (manassila), or vermilion or with the powder of kuruvinda (black salt?), gold or silver articles are rubbed, that act is termed rubbing.
By these acts, gold and silver articles (bhdnddni) undergo Kautilya's Arthashastra diminution; but no other kind of injury is done to them.
In all those pieces which are hammered, cut, scratched, or rubbed the loss can be inferred by comparing them with intact pieces of similar description. In amalgamated pieces (avalepya) which are cut off, the loss can be ascertained by cutting off an equal portion of a similar piece. Those pieces the appearance of which has changed shall be often heated and drenched in water.
(The state goldsmith) shall infer deception (kdcham vidydt) when [the artisan preparing articles pays undue attention to] throwing away, counter-weight, fire, anvil (gandika), working instruments (bhandika), the seat (adhikarani), the assaying balance, folds of dress (chellachollakam), his head, his thigh, flies, eagerness to look at his own body, the water-pot, and the firepot.
Regarding silver, bad smell like that of rotten meat, hardness due to any alloy (mala), projection (prastina), and bad colour may be considered as indicating adulteration.
Thus articles (of gold and silver) new or old, or of bad or unusual colour are to be examined and adequate fines as described above shall be imposed.
[Thus ends Chapter XIV, "The Duties of the State Goldsmith in the High Road" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of thirty-fifth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XV. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF STOREHOUSE.
Kautilya's Arthashastra THE superintendent of storehouse (Koshthdgdra) shall supervise the accounts of agricultural produce (sita); taxes coming under Rdshtra, country-parts; commerce (krayima); barter (parivartna); begging for grains (prdmityaka); grains borrowed with promise to repay (dpamityaka); manufacture of rice, oils, etc. (simhanika); accidental revenue (anyajdta); statements to check expenditure (vyayapratyaya); and recovery of past arrears (upasthdnam).
Whatever in the shape of agricultural produce is brought in by the superintendent of agriculture, (of crown-lands) is termed sitd.
The taxes that are fixed (pindakara), taxes that are paid in the form of one- sixth of produce (shadbhdga), provision paid (by the people) for the army (sendbhakta), taxes that are levied for religious purposes (ball), taxes or subsidies that are paid by vassal kings and others (kara), taxes that are specially collected on the occasion of the birth of a prince (utsanga), taxes that are collected when there is some margin left for such collection (pdrsva), compensation levied in the shape of grains for any damage done by cattle to crops (pdrihinaka), presentation made to the king, (aupdyanika), and taxes that are levied on lands below tanks, lakes, etc., built by the king (Kaushtheyaka),— all these come under the head 'Rdshtra.'
Sale proceeds of grains, grains purchased and the collection of interest in kind or grain debts (prayogapratydddna) are termed commerce.
Profitable exchange of grains for grains is termed barter (parivarthana).
Grains collected by begging is termed prdmityaka.
Kautilya's Arthashastra Grains borrowed with promise to repay the same is termed dpamityaka.
Pounding (rice, etc.), dividing (pulses, etc.), frying (corns and beans), manufacture of beverages (suktakarma), manufacture of flour by employing those persons who live upon such works, extracting oil by employing shepherds and oil-makers, and manufacture of sugar from the juice of sugar-cane are termed simhanika.
Whatever is lost and forgotten (by others) and the like form accidental revenue (anyajdta).
Investment, the relic of a wrecked undertaking, and savings from an estimated outlay are the means to check expenditure (yyayapratyaya).
That amount or quantity of compensation which is claimed for making use of a different balance or for any error in taking a handful is termed vydji.
Collection of arrears is termed 'upasthdna,' 'recovery of past arrears.'
Of grains, oils, sugar, and salt, all that concerns grains will be treated of in connection with the duties of the 'Superintendent of Agriculture.'
Clarified butter, oil, serum of flesh, and pith or sap (of plants, etc.)., are termed oils (sneha).
Decoction (phdnita), jaggory, granulated sugar, and sugar-candy are termed kshdra.
Saindhava, that which is the product of the country of Sindhu; Kautilya's Arthashastra Sdmudra, that which is produced from seawater; Bida; Yavakshara, nitre, Sauvarchala, that which is the product of the country of suvarchala; and udbhedaja, that which is extracted from saline soil are termed lavana, salt.
The honey of the bee as well as the juice extracted from grapes are called madhu.
Mixture made by combining any one of the substances, such as the juice of sugarcane, jaggory, honey,, the, juice of grapes, the essence of the fruits of jambu (Euginia Jambolana) and of jaka tree — with the essence of meshasringa (a kind of plant) and long pepper, with or without the addition of the essence of chirbhita (a kind of gourd), cucumber, sugar-cane, mango-fruit and the fruit of myrobalam, the mixture being prepared so as to last for a month, or six months, or a year, constitute the group of astringents (sukta-varga).
The fruits of those trees which bear acid fruits, those of karamarda (Carissa Carandas), those of vidaldmalka (myrobalam), those of matulanga (citron tree), those of kola (small jujuba), those of badara (Flacourtia Cataphracta), those of sauvira (big jujuba), and those of parushaka (Grewia Asiatica) and the like come under the group of acid fruits.
Curds, acid prepared from grains and the like are acids in liquid form.
Long pepper, black pepper, ginger, cumin seed, kiratatikta (Agathotes Chirayta), white mustard, coriander, choraka (a plant), damanaka (Artemisia Indica), maruvaka (Vangueria Spinosa), sigru (Hyperanthera Moringa), and the like together with their roots (kdnda) come under the group of pungent substances (tiktavarga).
Kautilya's Arthashastra Dried fish, bulbous roots (kdndamula), fruits and vegetables form the group of edibles (sakavarga).
Of the store, thus, collected, half shall be kept in reserve to ward off the calamities of the people and only the other half shall be used. Old collection shall be replaced by new supply.
The superintendent shall also personally supervise the increase or diminution sustained in grains when they are pounded (kshunna), or frayed (ghrishta), or reduced to flour (pishta), or fried (bhrashta), or dried after soaking in water.
The essential part (sdra, i.e., that which is fit for food) of kodrava (Paspalam Scrobiculatum) and of vrihi (rice) is one-half; that of sdli (a kind of rice) is (half) less by one-eighth part; that of varaka (Phraseolus Trilobus) is (half) less by one-third part; that of priyangu (panic seed or millet) is one-half; that of chamasi (barley), of mudga (Phraseolus Mungo) and of masha (Phraseolus Radiatus) is (half) less by one-eighth part; that of saibya (simbi) is one-half; that of masura (Ervum Hirsutum) is (half) less by one-third part (than the raw material or grains from which it is prepared).
Raw flour and kulmasha (boiled and forced rice) will be as much as one and a half of the original quantity of the grains.
Barley gruel as well as its flour baked will be twice the original quantity.
Kodrava (Paspalam Scrobiculatum), varaka (Phraseolus Trilobus), uddraka (Panicum), and priyangu (millet) will increase three times the original quantity when cooked. Vrihi (rice) will increase four times when cooked. Sdli (a kind of rice) will increase five times when cooked.
Kautilya's Arthashastra Grains will increase twice the original quantity when moistened; and two and a half times when soaked to sprouting condition.
Grains fried will increase by one-fifth the original quantity; leguminous seeds (kaldya), when fried, will increase twice the original; likewise rice when fried.
Oil extracted from atasi (linseed) will be one-sixth (of the quantity of the seed); that extracted from the seeds, nimba (Azadirachta Indica), kusdmra (?), and Kapittha (Feronia Elephantum) will be one-fifth; and that extracted from tila (seasumum), kusumba (a sort of kidney bean), madhiika (Bassia Latifolia), and ingudi (Terminalia Catappa) will be one-fourth.
Five palas of kdrpdsa (cotton) and of kshauma (flax) will yield one pala of threads.
Rice prepared in such a way that five drona of sdli yield ten ddhakas of rice will be fit to be the food of young elephants; eleven ddhakas from five dronas for elephants of bad temper (vydla); ten ddhakas from the same quantity for elephants trained for riding; nine ddhakas from the same quantity for elephants used in war; eight ddhakas from the same for infantry; eleven ddhakas from the same for chiefs of the army; six ddhakas from the same for queens and princes and five ddhakas from the same quantity for kings.
One prastha of rice, pure and unsplit, one-fourth prastha of supa, and clarified butter or oil equal to one-fourth part of (supa) will suffice to form one meal of an Arya.
One-sixth prastha of supa for a man; and half the above quantity of oil will form one meal for low castes (avara).
Kautilya's Arthashastra The same rations less by one-fourth the above quantities will form one meal for a woman; and half the above rations for children.
For dressing twenty palas of flesh, half a kutumba of oil, one pala of salt, one pala of sugar (kshdra), two dharanas of pungent substances (katuka, spices), and half a prastha of curd (will be necessary).
For dressing greater quantities of flesh, the same ingredients can be proportionally increased.
For cooking sdkas (dried fish and vegetables), the above substances are to be added one and a half times as much.
For dressing dried fish, the above ingredients are to be added twice as much.
Measures of rations for elephants and horses will be described in connection with the "Duties of Their Respective Superintendents. " For bullocks, one drona of masha (Phraseolus Radiatus) or one drona of barley cooked with other things, as prescribed for horses, is the requisite quantity of food, besides the special and additional provision of one tula of oilcakes (ghdnapinyaka) or ten ddhakas of bran (kanakuttana-kundaka).
Twice the above quantity for buffaloes and camels.
Half a drona for asses, red spotted deer and deer with white stripes.
Kautilya's Arthashastra One ddhaka for an antelope and big red deer. Half an ddhaka or one ddhaka of grain together with bran for a goat, a ram and a boar.
One prastha of cooked rice for dogs.
Half aprastha for a hamsa (goose), a krauncha (heron) and a peacock.
From the above, the quantity of rations enough for one meal for other beasts, cattle, birds, and rogue elephants (vydla) may be inferred.
Charcoal and chaff may be given over for iron smelting and lime-kiln (bhittilepya).
Bran and flour (kdnika) may be given to slaves, labourers, and cooks. The surplus of the above may be given to those who prepare cooked rice, and rice-cakes.
The weighing balance, weights, measures, mill-stone (rochani), pestle, mortar, wooden contrivances for pounding rice, etc., (kuttakay antra), contrivances for splitting seeds into pieces (rochakay antra), winnowing fans, sieves (chdlani) grain-baskets (kandoli), boxes, and brooms are the necessary instruments.
Sweepers; preservers; those who weigh things (dharaka); those who measure grains, etc.; those who supervise the work of measuring grains (mdpaka); those who supervise the supply of Kautilya's Arthashastra commodities to the store-house (ddpaka); those who supply commodities (ddyaka); those who are employed to receive compensation for any real or supposed error in measuring grains, etc. (sdldkdipratigrdhaka); slaves; and labourers; — all these are called vishti.
Grains are heaped up on the floor; jaggory (kshdra) is bound round in grass-rope (miita); oils are kept in earthenware or wooden vessels; and salt is heaped up on the surface of the ground.
[Thus ends Chapter XV, "The Superintendent of Storehouse," in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the thirty- sixth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XVI. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF COMMERCE.
THE Superintendent of Commerce shall ascertain demand or absence of demand for, and rise or fall in the price of, various kinds of merchandise which may be the products either of land or of water and which may have been brought in either by land or by water path. He shall also ascertain the time suitable for their distribution, centralisation, purchase, and sale.
That merchandise which is widely distributed shall be centralised and its price enhanced. When the enhanced rate becomes popular, another rate shall be declared.
That merchandise of the king which is of local manufacture shall be centralised; imported merchandise shall be distributed in Kautilya's Arthashastra several markets for sale. Both kinds of merchandise shall be favourably sold to the people.
He shall avoid such large profits as will harm the people. There shall be no restriction to the time of sale of those commodities for which there is frequent demand; nor shall they be subject to the evils of centralisation (sankuladosha).
Or pedlars may sell the merchandise of the king at a fixed price in many markets and pay necessary compensation (vaidharana) proportional to the loss entailed upon it (chheddnurupam).
The amount of vydji due on commodities sold by cubical measure is one- sixteenth of the quantity (shodasabhdgo mdnavydji); that on commodities sold by weighing balance is one-twentieth of the quantity; and that on commodities sold in numbers is one-eleventh of the whole.
The superintendent shall show favour to those who import foreign merchandise: mariners (ndvika) and merchants who import foreign merchandise shall be favoured with remission of the trade-taxes, so that they may derive some profit (dyatikshamam parihdram dadydt).
Foreigners importing merchandise shall be exempted from being sued for debts unless they are (local) associations and partners (anabhiyogaschdrthesshvdgantundmanyatassabhyopakdri bhyah).
Those who sell the merchandise of the king shall invariably put their sale proceeds in a wooden box kept in a fixed place and provided with a single aperture on the top.
Kautilya's Arthashastra During the eighth part of the day, they shall submit to the superintendent the sale report, saying "this much has been sold and this much remains;" they shall also hand over the weights and measures. Such are the rules applicable to local traffic.
As regards the sale of the king's merchandise in foreign countries:— Having ascertained the value of local produce as compared with that of foreign produce that can be obtained in barter, the superintendent will find out (by calculation) whether there is any margin left for profit after meeting the payments (to the foreign king) such as the toll (sulka), road-cess (vartani), conveyance-cess (dtivdhika), tax payable at military stations (gulmadeya), ferry-charges (taradeya), subsistence to the merchant and his followers (bhakta), and the portion of merchandise payable to the foreign king (bhdga).
If no profit can be realised by selling the local produce in foreign countries, he has to consider whether any local produce can be profitably bartered for any foreign produce. Then he may send one quarter of his valuable merchandise through safe roads to different markets on land. In view of large profits, he (the deputed merchant) may make friendship with the forest-guards, boundary-guards, and officers in charge of cities and of country-parts (of the foreign king). He shall take care to secure his treasure {sard) and life from danger. If he cannot reach the intended market, he may sell the merchandise (at any market) free from all dues (sarvadeyavisuddham).