Or he may take his merchandise to other countries through rivers (nadipatha).
He shall also gather information as to conveyance-charges (ydnabhdgaka), subsistence on the way (pathyadana), value of Kautilya's Arthashastra foreign merchandise that can be obtained in barter for local merchandise, occasions of pilgrimages (ydtrakdla), means that can be employed to ward off dangers (of the journey), and the history of commercial towns (panyapattanachdritra).
Having gathered information as to the transaction in commercial towns along the banks of rivers, he shall transport his merchandise to profitable markets and avoid unprofitable ones.
[Thus ends Chapter XVI, "The Superintendent of Commerce" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of thirty- seventh chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XVII. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF FOREST PRODUCE.
THE Superintendent of Forest Produce shall collect timber and other products of forests by employing those who guard productive forests. He shall not only start productive works in forests, but also fix adequate fines and compensations to be levied from those who cause any damage to productive forests except in calamities.
The following are forest products.
Sdka (teak), tinisa (Dalbergia Ougeinensis), dhanvana (?), arjuna (Terminalia Arjuna), madhuka (Bassia Latifolia), tilaka (Barleria Cristata), tola (palmyra), simsiipa (Dalbergia Sissu), arimeda (Fetid Mimosa), rdjddana (Mimosops Kauki), sirisha (Mimosa Sirisha), khadira (Mimosa Catechu), sarala (Pinus Kautilya's Arthashastra Longifolia), tdlasarja {sal tree or Shorea Robesta), asvakarna (Vatica Robesta), somavalka (a kind of white khadira), kasdmra (?.),priyaka (yellow sal tree), dhava (Mimosa Hexandra), etc., are the trees of strong timber (sdraddruvarga).
Utaja, Chimiya, Chava, Venu, Vamsa, Sdtina, Kantaka, and Bhdlluka, etc., form the group of bamboo.
Vetra (cane), sokavalli, vdsi (Justicia Ganderussa?), sydmalatd (Ichnocarpus), ndgalata (betel), etc., form the group of creepers.
Mdlati (Jasminum Grandiflorum), durvd (panic grass), arka (Calotropis Gigantea), sana (hemp), gavedhuka (Coix Barbata), atasi (Linum Usitatis simum), etc., form the group of fibrous plants (valkavarga).
Munja (Saccharum Munja), balbaja (Eleusine Indica), etc., are plants which yield rope-making material (rajjubhdnda).
Tali (Corypha Taliera), tdla (palmyra or Borassus Flabelliformis), and bhurja (birch) yield leaves (patram).
Kimsuka (Butea Frondosa), kusumbha (Carthamus Tinctorius), and kumkuma (Crocus Sativus) yield flowers.
Bulbous roots and fruits are the group of medicines.
Kdlakuta, Vatsandbha, Hdldhala, Meshasringa, Mustd, (Cyperus Rotundus), kushtha, mahdvisha, vellitaka, gaurdrdra, bdlaka, mdrkata, haimavata, kdlingaka, daradaka, kolasdraka, ushtraka, etc., are poisons.
Likewise snakes and worms kept in pots are the group of Kautilya's Arthashastra poisons.
Skins are those of godha (alligator), seraka (?), dvipi (leopard), simsumdra (porpoise), simha (lion), vydghra (tiger), hasti, (elephant.), mahisha (buffalo), chamara (bos grunniens), gomriga (bos gavaeus), and gavaya (the gayal).
Bones, bile (pittha), sndyu (?), teeth, horn, hoofs, and tails of the above animals as well as of other beasts, cattle, birds and snakes (yydla).
Kdldyasa (iron), tdmra (copper), vritta (?), kdmsya (bronze), sisa (lead), trapu (tin), vaikrintaka (mercury?), and drakuata (brass), are metals.
Utensils (bhanda), are those made of cane, bark (vidala), and clay (mrittikd).
Charcoal, bran, and ashes are other things.
Menageries of beasts, cattle, and birds.
Collection of firewood and fodder.
The superintendent of forest produce shall carry on either inside or outside (the capital city) the manufacture of all kinds of articles which are Kautilya's Arthashastra necessary for life or for the defence of forts. [Thus ends Chapter XVII, "The Superintendent of Forest Produce" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of chapter thirty-eighth from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XVIII. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF THE ARMOURY.
THE Superintendent of the Armoury shall employ experienced workmen of tried ability to manufacture in a given time and for fixed wages wheels, weapons, mail armour, and other accessory instruments for use in battles, in the construction or defence of forts, or in destroying the cities or strongholds of enemies.
All these weapons and instruments shall be kept in places suitably prepared for them. They shall not only be frequently dusted and transferred from one place to another, but also be exposed to the sun. Such weapons as are likely to be affected by heat and vapour (ushmopasneha) and to be eaten by worms shall be kept in safe localities. They shall also be examined now and then with reference to the class to which they belong, their forms, their characteristics, their size, their source, their value, and their total quantity.
Sarvatobhadra, jamadagnya, bahumukha, visvdsaghdti, samghdti, ydnaka, parjanyaka, ardhabdhu, and urdhvabdhu are immoveable machines (sthirayantrdm).
Kautilya's Arthashastra Pdnchdlika, devadanda, siikarika, musala, yashti, hastivdraka, tdlavrinta, mudgara, gada, spriktala, kudddla, dsphdtima, audhghdtima, sataghni, trisula, and chakra are moveable machines.
Sakti, prdsa, kunta, hdtaka, bhindivdla, sula, tomara, vardhakarna, kanaya, karpana, trdsika, and the like are weapons with edges like a ploughshare (halamukhdni).
Bows made of tdla (palmyra), of chdpa (a kind of bamboo), of ddru (a kind of wood), and sringa (bone or horn) are respectively called kdrmuka, kodanda, druna, and dhanus.
Bow-strings are made of murva (Sansviera Roxburghiana), arka (Catotropis Gigantea), sdna (hemp), gavedhu (Coix Barbata), venu (bamboo bark), and sndyu (sinew).
Venu, sara, saldka, danddsana, and ndrdcha are different kinds of arrows. The edges of arrows shall be so made of iron, bone or wood as to cut, rend or pierce.
Nistrimsa, mandaldgra, and asiyashti are swords. The handles of swords are made of the horn of rhinoceros, buffalo, of the tusk of elephants, of wood, or of the root of bamboo.
Parasu, kuthdra, pattasa, khanitra, kudddla, chakra, and kdndachchhedana are razor- like weapons.
Yantrapdshdna, goshpanapdshdna, mushtipdshdna, rochani (mill- stone), and stones are other weapons (dyudhdni).
Lohajdlikd, patta, kavacha, and sutraka are varieties of armour made of iron or of skins with hoofs and horns of porpoise, rhinoceros, bison, elephant or cow.
Kautilya's Arthashastra Likewise sirastrdna (cover for the head), kanthatrdna (cover for the neck) kurpdsa (cover for the trunk), kanchuka (a coat extending as far as the knee joints), vdravdna (a coat extending as far as the heels), patta, (a coat without cover for the arms), and ndgodarikd (gloves) are varieties of armour.
Veti, charma, hastikarna, tdlamula, dharmanika, kavdta, kitika, apratihata, and valdhakdnta are instruments used in self-defence (dvarandni).
Ornaments for elephants, chariots, and horses as well as goads and hooks to lead them in battle-fields constitute accessory things (upakarandni).
(Besides the above) such other delusive and destructive contrivances (as are treated of in Book XIV) together with any other new inventions of expert workmen (shall also be kept in stock.)
The Superintendent of Armoury shall precisely ascertain the demand and supply of weapons, their application, their wear and tear, as well as their decay and loss.
[Thus ends Chapter XVIII, "The Superintendent of the Armoury" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents," of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of thirty-ninth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XIX. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Kautilya's Arthashastra THE Superintendent of Weights and Measures shall have the same manufactured.
10 seeds of mdsha (Phraseolus Radiatus) or 5 „ gunja (Cabrus Precatorius) = 1 suvarna-mdsha. 16 mdshas = 1 suvarna or karsha. 4 karshas = 1 pala. 88 white mustard seeds = 1 silwer-mdsha. 16 silver mashas or 20 saibya seeds = 1 dharana. 20 grains of rice = 1 dharana of a diamond.
Ardha-mdsha (half a mdsha), one mdsha, two mdshas, four mdshas, eight mdshas, one suvarna, two suvarnas, four suvarnas, eight suvarnas, ten suvarnas, twenty suvarnas, thirty suvarnas, forty suvarnas and one hundred suvarnas are different units of weights.
Similar series of weights shall also be made in dharanas.
Weights (pratimdndni) shall be made of iron or of stones available in the countries of Magadha and Mekala; or of such things as will neither contract when wetted, nor expand under the influence of heat.
Beginning with a lever of six angulas in length and of one pala in the weight of its metallic mass, there shall be made ten (different) balances with levers successively increasing by one pala in the weight of their metallic masses, and by eight angulas in their length. A scale -pan shall be attached to each of them on one or both sides.
A balance called samavrittd, with its lever 72-angulas long and weighing 53 palas in its metallic mass shall also be made. A scalepan of 5 palas in the weight of its metallic mass being attached to its edge, the horizontal position of the lever (samakarana) when weighing a karsha shall be marked (on that Kautilya's Arthashastra part of the lever where, held by a thread, it stands horizontal). To the left of that mark, symbols such as 1 pala, 12, 15 and 20 palas shall be marked. After that, each place of tens up to 100 shall be marked. In the place of Akshas, the sign of Ndndi shall be marked.
Likewise a balance called parimdni of twice as much metallic mass as that of samavrittd and of 96 angulas in length shall be made. On its lever, marks such as 20, 50 and 100 above its initial weight of 100 shall be carved.
100 such palas == 1 dyamdni (measure of roy Public balance (vydvahdrikd), servants' balance (bhdjinf), and hare (antahpurabhdjini) successively decrease by five palas (compared with dyamdni). A pala in each of the above successively falls short of the same in dyamdni by half a dharana. The metallic mass of the levers of each of the above successively decreases in weight by two ordinary palas and in length by six angulas. Excepting flesh, metals, salt, and precious stones, an excess of five palas (praydma) of all other commodities (shall be given to the king ) when they are weighed in the two first-named balances. A Kautilya's Arthashastra wooden balance with a lever 8 hands long, with measuring marks and counterpoise weights shall be erected on a pedestal like that of a peacock. Twenty-five palas of firewood will cook one prastha of rice. This is the unit (for the calculation) of any greater or less quantity (of firewood). Thus weighing balance and weights are commented upon. Then, 1 drona which is an dyamdna, a measure of royal 200 palas in the grains of income.
public drona.
antahpurabhdjaniya, harem measure.
Adhaka, prastha, and kudumba, are each lA of the one previously mentioned.
kumbha. 10 kumbhas == 1 vaha.
Cubic measures shall be so made of dry and strong wood that when filled with grains, the conically heaped-up portion of the Kautilya's Arthashastra grains standing on the mouth of the measure is equal to lAth of the quantity of the grains (so measured); or the measures may also be so made that a quantity equal to the heaped-up portion can be contained within (the measure).
But liquids shall always be measured level to the mouth of the measure.
With regard to wine, flowers, fruits, bran, charcoal and slaked lime, twice the quantity of the heaped-up portion (i.e., lAth of the measure) shall be given in excess.
V-A panas is the a drona.
price of 3A pana,, an ddhaka. 6 mdshas „ aprastha. 1 mas ha,, a kudumba.
The price of similar liquid-measures is double the above.
20 panas is the a set of counter- weights, price of 62A panas „ of a tula (balance).
The Superintendent shall charge 4 mdshas for stamping weights or measures. A fine of 21 lA panas shall be imposed for using unstamped weights or measures.
Traders shall every day pay one kdkani to the Superintendent towards the charge of stamping the weights and measures.
Kautilya's Arthashastra Those who trade in clarified butter, shall give, (to purchasers) 1/32 part more as taptavydji (i.e., compensation for decrease in the quantity of ghi owing to its liquid condition). Those who trade in oil shall give 1/64 part more as taptavydji.
(While selling liquids, traders) shall give 1/50 part more as mdnasrdva (i.e., compensation for diminution in the quantity owing to its overflow or adhesion to the measuring can).
Half, one-fourth, and one-eighth parts of the measure, kumbha, shall also be manufactured.
84 kudumbas of clarified butter are held a wdraka of the same; to be equal to 64 kudumbas of clarified butter are held make one wdraka of oil (taila);andl/4 of a wdraka to be equal to is called ghatika, either of ghi or of oil.
[Thus ends Chapter XIX, "Balance, Weights and Measures" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the fortieth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XX. MEASUREMENT OF SPACE AND TIME.
THE Superintendent of lineal measure shall possess the knowledge of measuring space and time.
atoms (paramdnavah) are 1 particle thrown off by the wheel of a chariot.
Kautilya's Arthashastra equal to 8 particles are equal to 1 likshd.
8 likshds are equal to the middle of a yiika (louse) or a yuka of medium size.
8 yiikas are equal to 1 yava (barley) of middle size.
1 angula (% of an English inch) or the middlemost joint 8 yavas are equal to of the middle finger of a man of medium size may be taken to be equal to an angula. 4 angulas are equal to 1 dhanurgraha. 8 angulas are equal to 1 dhanurmushti. 12 angulas are equal to 1 vitasti, or 1 chhdydpaurusha. 14 angulas are equal to 1 sama, sola, pariraya, or pada. 2 vitastis are equal to 1 aratni or 1 prdjdpatya hasta 2 vitastis plus 1 dhanurgraha arel hasta used in measuring balances and cubic measures, equal to and pasture lands. 2 vitastis plus 1 dhanurmusti 1 kishku or 1 kamsa.
1 kishku according to sawyers and blacksmiths and used 42 angulas are equal to in measuring the grounds for the encampment of the army, for forts and palaces. 54 angulas are equal to 1 hasta used in measuring timber forests.
84 1 vydma, used in measuring ropes and the depth of angulas are equal to digging, in terms of a man's height. 4 aratnis are equal to 1 danda, 1 dhanus, 1 ndlika and 1 paurusha. 108 angulas are equal to 1 garhapatya dhanus (i.e., a measure used by carpenters called grihapati). This measure is used in measuring roads and fort-walls.
Kautilya's Arthashastra The same (108 angulas) are 1 paurusha, a measure used in building sacrificial altars.
equal to 6 kamsas or 192 angulas arel danda, used in measuring such lands as are gifted to equal to Brdhmans.
10 dandas are equal to 1 rajju.
2 rajjus are equal to 1 paridesa (square measure).
3 rajjus are equal to 1 nivartana (square measure). The same (3 rajjus) plus 2 dandas on one side only are 1 bdhu (arm).
equal to 1000 dhanus are equal to 1 goruta (sound of a cow).
4 gorutas are equal to 1 yojana.
Thus are the lineal and square measures dealt with.
Then with regard to the measures of time:— (The divisions of time are) a truti, lava, nimesha, kdshthd, kald, ndlikd, muhurta, forenoon, afternoon, day, night, paksha, month, ritu (season), ay ana (solstice); samvatsara (year), and yuga.
2 trutis are equal to 1 lava. 2 lavas are equal to 1 nimesha. 5 Kautilya's Arthashastra nimeshas are equal to 1 kdshthd. 30 kdshthds are equal to 1 kald.
1 ndlikd, or the time during which one ddhaka of water passes 40 kalds are equal to out of a pot through an aperture of the same diameter as that of a wire of 4 angulas in length and made of 4 mdshas of gold. 2 ndlikas are equal to 1 muhurta. 15 muhurtas are equal to 1 day or 1 night.
Such a day and night happen in the months of Chaitra and Asvayuja. Then after the period of six months it increases or diminishes by three muhurtas.
When the length of shadow is eight paurushas (96 angulas), it is 1/1 8th part of the day.
When it is 6 paurushas (72 angulas), it is l/14th part of the day; when 4 paurushas, l/8th part; when 2 paurushas, l/6th part; when 1 paurusha, Vith part; when it is 8 angulas, 3/10th part (trayodasabhdgah); when 4 angulas, 3/8th part; and when no shadow is cast, it is to be considered midday.
Likewise when the day declines, the same process in reverse order shall be observed.
It is in the month of Ashddha that no shadow is cast in midday. After Ashddha, during the six months from Srdvana Kautilya's Arthashastra upwards, the length of shadow successively increases by two angulas and during the next six months from Mdgha upwards, it successively decreases by two angulas.
Fifteen days and nights together make up one paksha. That paksha during which the moon waxes is white (sukla) and that paksha during which the moon wanes is bahula.
Two pakshas make one month (mdsa). Thirty days and nights together make one work-a-month (prakarmamdsah). The same (30 days and nights) with an additional half a day makes one solar month (saura).
The same (30) less by half a day makes one lunar month (chandramdsa). Twenty-seven (days and nights) make a sidereal month (nakshatramdsa). Once in thirty-two months there comes one malamdsa profane month, i.e., an extra month added to lunar year to harmonise it with the solar. Once in thirty-five months there comes a malamdsa for Asvavdhas.
Once in forty months there comes a malamdsa for hastivdhas. Two months make one ritu (season). Srdvana and proshthapada make the rainy season (varshd). Asvayuja and Kautilya's Arthashastra Kdrthika make the autumn (sarad). Mdrgasirsha and Phausha make the winter (hemanta). Mdgha and Phalguna make the dewy season (sisira). Chaitra and Vaisdkha make the spring (vasanta). Jyeshthdmuliya and Ashddha make the summer (grishma). Seasons from sisira and upwards are the summer-solstice (uttardyana), and (those) from varshd and upwards are the winter solstice (dakshindyana). Two solstices (ay anas) make one year (samvatsara). Five years make one yuga. The sun carries off (harati) l/60th of a whole day every day and thus makes one complete day in every two months (ritau). Likewise the moon (falls behind by l/60th of a whole day every day and falls behind one day in every two months). Thus in the middle of every third year, they (the sun and the moon) make one adhimdsa, additional month, first in the summer season and second at the end of five years.
[Thus ends Chapter XX, "Measurement of Space and Time" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty-first chapter from the beginning.]
Kautilya's Arthashastra CHAPTER XXI. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF TOLLS.
THE Superintendent of Tolls shall erect near the large gate of the city both the tollhouse and its flag facing either the north or the south. When merchants with their merchandise arrive at the toll-gate, four or five collectors shall take down who the merchants are, whence they come, what amount of merchandise they have brought and where for the first time the sealmark (abhijndnamudrd) has been made (on the merchandise).
Those whose merchandise has not been stamped with sealmark shall pay twice the amount of toll. For counterfeit seal they shall pay eight times the toll. If the sealmark is effaced or torn, (the merchants in question) shall be compelled to stand in ghatikdsthdna. When one kind of seal is used for another or when one kind of merchandise has been otherwise named (ndmakrite), the merchants shall pay a fine of Wa pands for each load (sapddapanikam vahanam ddpayet).
The merchandise being placed near the flag of the toll-house, the merchants shall declare its quantity and price, cry out thrice "who will purchase this quantity of merchandise for this amount of price," and hand over the same to those who demand it (for that price). When purchasers happen to bid for it, the enhanced amount of the price together with the toll on the merchandise shall be paid into the king's treasury. When under the fear of having to pay a heavy toll, the quantity or the price of merchandise is lowered, the excess shall be taken by the king or the merchants shall be made to pay eight times the toll. The same punishment shall be imposed when the price of the merchandise packed in bags is lowered by showing an inferior sort as its sample or when valuable merchandise is covered over with a layer of an inferior one.
When under the fear of bidders (enhancing the price), the Kautilya's Arthashastra price of any merchandise is increased beyond its proper value, the king shall receive the enhanced amount or twice the amount of toll on it. The same punishment or eight times the amount of toll shall be imposed on the Superintendent of tolls if he conceals (merchandise).
Hence commodities shall be sold only after they are precisely weighed, measured, or numbered.
With regard to inferior commodities as well as those which are to be let off free of toll, the amount of toll due shall be determined after careful consideration.
Those merchants who pass beyond the flag of the toll-house without paying the toll shall be fined eight times the amount of the toll due from them.
Those who pass by to and from (the city) shall ascertain (whether or not toll has been paid on any merchandise going along the road.)
Commodities intended for marriages, or taken by a bride from her parents' house to her husband's (anvdyanam), or intended for presentation, or taken for the purpose of sacrificial performance, confinement of women, worship of gods, ceremony of tonsure, investiture of sacred thread, gift of cows (goddna, made before marriage), any religious rite, consecration ceremony (dikshd), and other special ceremonials shall be let off free of toll.
Those who utter a lie shall be punished as thieves.
Those who smuggle a part of merchandise on which toll has not been paid with that on which toll has been paid as well as those who, with a view to smuggle with one pass a second portion of merchandise, put it along with the stamped merchandise after Kautilya's Arthashastra breaking open the bag shall forfeit the smuggled quantity and pay as much fine as is equal to the quantity so smuggled.
He who, falsely swearing by cowdung, smuggles merchandise, shall be punished with the highest amercement.
When a person imports such forbidden articles as weapons (sastra), mail armour, metals, chariots, precious stones, grains and cattle, he shall not only be punished as laid down elsewhere, but also be made to forfeit his merchandise. When any of such commodities has been brought in for sale, they shall be sold, free of toll far outside (the fort).
The officer in charge of boundaries (antapdla) shall receive a pana-and-a-quarter as roadcess (yartani) on each load of merchandise (panyavahanasya).
He shall levy a pana on a single-hoofed animal, half a pana on each head of cattle, and a quarter on a minor quadruped.
He shall also receive a mdsha on a head-load of merchandise.
He shall also make good whatever has been lost by merchants (in the part of the country under his charge).
After carefully examining foreign commodities as to their superior or inferior quality and stamping them with his seal, he shall send the same to the superintendent of tolls.
Or he may send to the king a spy in the guise of a trader with information as to the quantity and quality of the merchandise. (Having received this information,) the king shall in turn send it to the superintendent of tolls in view of exhibiting the king's omniscient power. The superintendent shall tell the merchants (in Kautilya's Arthashastra question) that such and such a merchant has brought such and such amount of superior or inferior merchandise, which none can possibly hide, and that that information is due to the omniscient power of the king.
For hiding inferior commodities, eight times the amount of toll shall be imposed; and for hiding or concealing superior commodities, they shall be wholly confiscated.
Whatever causes harm or is useless to the country shall be shut out; and whatever is of immense good as well as seeds not easily available shall be let in free of toll.
[Thus ends Chapter XXI, "The Superintendent of Tolls" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty- second chapter from the beginning.)
CHAPTER XXII. REGULATION OF TOLL-DUES.
MERCHANDISE, external (bdhyam, i.e., arriving from country parts), internal (dbhyantaram, i.e., manufactured inside forts), or foreign (dtithyani, i.e., imported from foreign countries) shall all be liable to the payment of toll alike when exported (nishkrdmya) and imported (pravesyam).
Imported commodities shall pay l/5th of their value as toll.
Of flower, fruit, vegetables (sdka), roots (inula), bulbous roots (kanda), pallikya (?), seeds, dried fish, and dried meat, the superintendent shall receive l/6th as toll.
Kautilya's Arthashastra As regards conch-shells, diamonds, precious stones, pearls, corals, and necklaces, experts acquainted with the time, cost, and finish of the production of such articles shall fix the amount of toll.
Of fibrous garments (kshauma), cotton cloths (dukiila), silk (krimitdna), mail armour (kankata), sulphuret of arsenic (haritdla), red arsenic (manassild), vermilion (hingulaka), metals (loha), and colouring ingredients (varnadhdtu); of sandal, brown sandal (agaru), pungents (katuka), ferments (kinva), dress (dvarana), and the like; of wine, ivory, skins, raw materials used in making fibrous or cotton garments, carpets, curtains (prdvarana), and products yielded by worms (krimijdta); and of wool and other products yielded by goats and sheep, he shall receive l/10th or l/15th as toll. Of cloths (yastra), quadrupeds, bipeds, threads, cotton, scents, medicines, wood, bamboo, fibres (valkala), skins, and clay-pots; of grains, oils, sugar (kshdra), salt, liquor (madya) cooked rice and the like, he shall receive l/20th or l/25th as toll.
Gate-dues (dvdrddeya) shall be 1/5 th of toll dues; this tax may be remitted if circumstances necessitate such favour. Commodities shall never be sold where they are grown or manufactured.
When minerals and other commodities are purchased from mines, a fine of 600 pands shall be imposed.
When flower or fruits are purchased from flower or fruit gardens, a fine of 54 panas shall be imposed.
When vegetables, roots, bulbous roots are purchased from vegetable gardens, a fine 5 PA panas shall be imposed.
When any kind of grass or grain is purchased from field, a fine of 53 panas shall be imposed.
Kautilya's Arthashastra (Permanent) fines of 1 pana and Wipanas shall be levied on agricultural produce (sitdtyayah).
Hence in accordance with the customs of countries or of communities, the rate of toll shall be fixed on commodities, either old or new; and fines shall be fixed in proportion to the gravity of offences.
[Thus ends Chapter XXII, "Regulation of Toll-dues," in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty-third chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XXIII. SUPERINTENDENT OF WEAVING.
THE Superintendent of Weaving shall employ qualified persons to manufacture threads (sutra), coats (varma), cloths (vastra), and ropes.
Widows, cripple women, girls, mendicant or ascetic women (pravrajitd), women compelled to work in default of paying fines (danddpratikdrini), mothers of prostitutes, old women- servants of the king, and prostitutes (devaddsi) who have ceased to attend temples on service shall be employed to cut wool, fibre, cotton, panicle {tula), hemp, and flax.
Wages shall be fixed according as the threads spun are fine, coarse (sthiila, i.e., big) or of middle quality and in proportion to a greater or less quantity manufactured, and in consideration of the quantity of thread spun, those (who turn out a greater quantity) shall be presented with oil and dried cakes of myrobalan fruits (taildmalakodvartanaih).
Kautilya's Arthashastra They may also be made to work on holidays (tithishu) by payment of special rewards (prativdpaddnamdnaih).
Wages shall be cut short, if making allowance for the quality of raw material, the quantity of the threads spun out is found to fall short.
Weaving may also be done by those artisans who are qualified to turn out a given amount of work in a given time and for a fixed amount of wages.
The superintendent shall closely associate with the workmen.
Those who manufacture fibrous cloths, raiments, silk-cloths, woollen cloths, and cotton fabrics shall be rewarded by presentations such as scents, garlands of flowers, or any other prizes of encouragement.
Various kinds of garments, blankets, and curtains shall be manufactured.
Those who are acquainted with the work shall manufacture mail armour.
Those women who do not stir out of their houses (anishkdsinyah), those whose husbands are gone abroad, and those who are cripple or girls may, when obliged to work for subsistence, be provided with work (spinning out threads) in due courtesy through the medium of maid- servants (of the weaving establishment.)
Those women who can present themselves at the weaving house shall at dawn be enabled to exchange their spinnings for wages (bhdndavetanavinimayam). Only so much light as is enough Kautilya's Arthashastra to examine the threads shall be kept. If the superintendent looks at the face of such women or talks about any other work, he shall be punished with the first amercement. Delay in paying the wages shall be punished with the middlemost amercement. Likewise when wages are paid for work that is not completed.
She who, having received wages, does not turn out the work shall have her thumb cut off.
Those who misappropriate, steal, or run away with, (the raw material supplied to them) shall be similarly punished.
Weavers, when guilty, shall be fined out of their wages in proportion to their offences.
The superintendent shall closely associate with those who manufacture ropes and mail armour and shall carry on the manufacture of straps (yaratra) and other commodities.
He shall carry on the manufacture of ropes from threads and fibres and of straps from cane and bamboo bark, with which beasts for draught are trained or tethered.
[Thus ends Chapter XXIII, "The Superintendent of Weaving" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty-fourth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XXIV. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF AGRICULTURE.
POSSESSED of the knowledge of the science of agriculture Kautilya's Arthashastra dealing with the plantation of bushes and trees (krishitantragulmavrikshshdyurvedajnah), or assisted by those who are trained in such sciences, the superintendent of agriculture shall in time collect the seeds of all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, bulbous roots, roots, pdllikya (?), fibre-producing plants, and cotton.
He shall employ slaves, labourers, and prisoners (dandapratikartri) to sow the seeds on crown-lands which have been often and satisfactorily ploughed.
The work of the above men shall not suffer on account of any want in ploughs (karshanay antra) and other necessary instruments or of bullocks. Nor shall there be any delay in procuring to them the assistence of blacksmiths, carpenters, borers (medaka), ropemakers, as well as those who catch snakes, and similar persons.