Any loss due to the above persons shall be punished with a fine equal to the loss.
The quantity of rain that falls in the country of jdngala is 16 dronas; half as much more in moist countries (anupdndm); as to the countries which are fit for agriculture (desavdpdnam);—l3V2 dronas in the country of asmakas; 23 dronas in avanti; and an immense quantity in western countries (apardntdndm), the borders of the Himalayas, and the countries where water channels are made use of in agriculture (kulydvdpdndm).
When one-third of the requisite quantity of rain falls both during the commencement and closing months of the rainy season and two-thirds in the middle, then the rainfall is (considered) very even (sushumdrupam).
Kautilya's Arthashastra A forecast of such rainfall can be made by observing the position, motion, and pregnancy (garbhdddna) of the Jupiter (Brihaspati), the rise and set and motion of the Venus, and the natural or unnatural aspect of the sun.
From the sun, the sprouting of the seeds can be inferred; from (the position of) the Jupiter, the formation of grains (stambakarita) can be inferred; and from the movements of the Venus, rainfall can be inferred.
Three are the clouds that continuously rain for seven days; eighty are they that pour minute drops; and sixty are they that appear with the sunshine— this is termed rainfall. Where rain, free from wind and unmingled with sunshine, falls so as to render three turns of ploughing possible, there the reaping of good harvest is certain.
Hence, i.e., according as the rainfall is more or less, the superintendent shall sow the seeds which require either more or less water.
Sdli (a kind of rice), vrihi (rice), kodrava (Paspalum Scrobiculatum), tila (sesamum), priyangu (panic seeds), ddraka (?), and varaka (Phraseolus Trilobus) are to be sown at the commencement (purvdvdpah) of the rainy season.
Mudga (Phraseolus Mungo), mdsha (Phraseolus Radiatus), and saibya (?) are to be sown in the middle of the season.
Kusumbha (safflower), masura (Ervum Hirsutum), kuluttha (Dolichos Uniflorus), yava (barley), godhuma (wheat), kaldya (leguminus seeds), atasi (linseed), and sarshapa (mustard) are to be sown last.
Or seeds may be sown according to the changes of the Kautilya's Arthashastra season.
Fields that are left unsown (vdpdtiriktam, i.e., owing to the inadequacy of hands) may be brought under cultivation by employing those who cultivate for half the share in the produce (ardhasitikd); or those who live by their own physical exertion (svaviryopajivinah) may cultivate such fields for lAth or l/5th of the produce grown; or they may pay (to the king) as much as they can without entailing any hardship upon themselves (anavasitam bhdgam), with the exception of their own private lands that are difficult to cultivate.
Those who cultivate irrigating by manual labour (hastaprdvartimam) shall pay l/5th of the produce as water-rate (udakabhdgam); by carrying water on shoulders (skandhaprdvartimam) Vith of the produce; by water-lifts (srotoyantraprdvartimam), lAxd of the produce; and by raising water from rivers, lakes, tanks, and wells (nadisarastatdkakupodghdtam),l/3vd or %th of the produce.
The superintendent shall grow wet crops (keddra), winter-crops (haimana), or summer crops (graishmika) according to the supply of workmen and water.
Rice-crops and the like are the best (jydshtha, i.e., to grow); vegetables (shanda) are of intermediate nature; and sugarcane crops (ikshu) are the worst (pratyavarah, i.e., very difficult to grow), for they are subject to various evils and require much care and expenditure to reap.
Lands that are beaten by foam (phendghdtah, i.e., banks of rivers, etc.) are suitable for growing valliphala (pumpkin, gourd and the like); lands that are frequently overflown by water (parivdhdnta) for long pepper, grapes (mridvikd), and sugarcane; Kautilya's Arthashastra the vicinity of wells for vegetables and roots; low grounds (hariniparyantdh) for green crops; and marginal furrows between any two rows of crops are suitable for the plantation of fragrant plants, medicinal herbs, cascus roots (usinara), hira (?), beraka (?), and pinddluka (lac) and the like.
Such medicinal herbs as grow in marshy grounds are to be grown not only in grounds suitable for them, but also in pots (sthalyam).
The seeds of grains are to be exposed to mist and heat (tushdrapdyanamushnam cha) for seven nights; the seeds of kosi are treated similarly for three nights; the seeds of sugarcane and the like (kdndabijdnam) are plastered at the cut end with the mixture of honey, clarified butter, the fat of hogs, and cowdung; the seeds of bulbous roots (kanda) with honey and clarified butter; cotton seeds (asthibija) with cow-dung; and water pits at the root of trees are to be burnt and manured with the bones and dung of cows on proper occasions.
The sprouts of seeds, when grown, are to be manured with a fresh haul of minute fishes and irrigated with the milk of snuhi (Euphorbia Antiquorum).
Where there is the smoke caused by burning the essence of cotton seeds and the slough of a snake, there snakes will not stay.
Always while sowing seeds, a handful of seeds bathed in water with a piece of gold shall be sown first and the following mantra recited:— "Prajapatye Kasyapaya devaya Sada Sita medhyatam devi bfjeshu Kautilya's Arthashastra dhaneshu cha. Chandavata he."
"Salutation to God Prajdpati Kasyapa. Agriculture may always flourish and the Goddess (may reside) in seeds and wealth. Channdavata he."
Provisions shall be supplied to watchmen, slaves and labourers in proportion to the amount of work done by them.
They shall be paid apana-and-a-quarter per mensem. Artisans shall be provided with wages and provision in proportion to the amount of work done by them.
Those that are learned in the Vedas and those that are engaged in making penance may take from the fields ripe flowers and fruits for the purpose of worshipping their gods, and rice and barley for the purpose of performing agrayana, a sacrificial performance at the commencement of harvest season, also those who live by gleaning grains in fields may gather grains where grains had been accumulated and removed from.
Grains and other crops shall be collected as often as they are harvested. No wise man shall leave anything in the fields, nor even chaff. Crops, when reaped, shall be heaped up in high piles or in the form of turrets. The piles of crops shall not be kept close, nor shall their tops be small or low. The threshing floors of different fields shall be situated close to each other. Workmen in the fields shall always have water but no fire.
[Thus ends Chapter XXIV, "The Superintendent of Agriculture" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty-fifth chapter from the beginning.]
Kautilya's Arthashastra CHAPTER XXV. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF LIQUOR.
BY employing such men as are acquainted with the manufacture of liquor and ferments (kinva), the Superintendent of Liquor shall carry on liquor-traffic not only in forts and country parts, but also in camps.
In accordance with the requirements of demand and supply (krayavikrayavasena) he may either centralize or decentralize the sale of liquor.
A fine of 600 panas shall be imposed on all offenders other than those who are manufacturers, purchasers, or sellers in liquor- traffic.
Liquor shall not be taken out of villages, nor shall liquor shops be close to each other.
Lest workmen spoil the work in hand, and Aryas violate their decency and virtuous character, and lest firebrands commit indiscreet acts, liquor shall be sold to persons of well known character in such small quantities as one-fourth or ha\f-a-kudumba, one kudumba, ha\f-a-prastha, or one prastha. Those who are well known and of pure character may take liquor out of shop.
Or all may be compelled to drink liquor within the shops and not allowed to stir out at once in view of detecting articles such as sealed deposits, unsealed deposits, commodities given for repair, stolen articles, and the like which the customer's may have acquired by foul means. When they are found to possess gold and other articles not their own, the superintendent shall contrive to cause them to be arrested outside the shop. Likewise those who are too extravagant or spend beyond their income shall be arrested.
Kautilya's Arthashastra No fresh liquor other than bad liquor shall be sold below its price. Bad liquor may be sold elsewhere or given to slaves or workmen in lieu of wages; or it may form the drink of beasts for draught or the subsistence of hogs.
Liquor shops shall contain many rooms provided with beds and seats kept apart. The drinking room shall contain scents, garlands of flowers, water, and other comfortable things suitable to the varying seasons.
Spies stationed in the shops shall ascertain whether the expenditure incurred by customers in the shop is ordinary or extraordinary and also whether there are any strangers. They shall also ascertain the value of the dress, ornaments, and gold of the customers lying there under intoxication.
When customers under intoxication lose any of their things, the merchants of the shop shall not only make good the loss, but also pay an equivalent fine.
Merchants seated in half-closed rooms shall observe the appearance of local and foreign customers who, in real or false guise of Aryas lie down in intoxication along with their beautiful mistresses.
Of various kinds of liquor such as medaka, prasanna, dsava, arista, maireya, and madhu:— Medaka is manufactured with one drona of water, half, an ddaka of rice, and three prastha of kinva (ferment).
Twelve ddhakas of flour (pishta), five prasthas of kinva (ferment), with the addition of spices (jdtisambhdra) together with the bark and fruits of putrakd (a species of tree) constitute prasanna.
Kautilya's Arthashastra One-hundred palas of kapittha (Feronia Elephantum) 500 palas of phdnita (sugar), and one prastha of honey (madhu) form dsava.
With an increase of one-quarter of the above ingredients, a superior kind of dsava is manufactured; and when the same ingredients are lessened to the extent of one-quarter each, it becomes of an inferior quality.
The preparation of various kinds of arishta for various diseases are to be learnt from physicians.
A sour gruel or decoction of the bark of meshasringi (a kind of poison) mixed with jaggery (guda) and with the powder of long pepper and black pepper or with the powder of triphala (1 Terminalia Chebula, 2 Terminalia Bellerica, and 3 Phyllanthus Emblica) forms Maireya.
To all kinds of liquor mixed with jaggery, the powder of triphala is always added.
The juice of grapes is termed madhu. Its own native place (svadesa) is the commentary on such of its various forms as kdpisdyana and hdrahuraka.
One drona of either boiled or unboiled paste of mdsha (Phraseolus Radiatus), three parts more of rice, and one karsha of morata (Alangium Hexapetalum) and the like form kinva (ferment).
In the manufacture of medaka and prasanna, five karshas of the powder of (each of pdthd (Clypea Hermandifolio), lodhra (Symplocos Racemosa), tejovati (Piper Chaba), eldvdluka (Solanum Melongena) honey, the juice of grapes (madhurasa), priyangu (panic seeds), ddruharidra (a species of turmeric) black Kautilya's Arthashastra pepper and long pepper are added as sambhdra, requisite spices.
The decoction of madhuka (Bassia Latifolia) mixed with granulated sugar (katasarkard), when added to prasanna, gives it a pleasing colour.
The requisite quantity of spices to be added to dsava is one karshd of the powder of each of chocha (bark of cinnamon), chitraka (Plumbago Zeylanica), vilanga, and gajapippali (Scindapsus Officinalis), and two karshas of the powder of each of kramuka (betel nut), madhuka (Bassia Latifolia), mustd (Cyprus Rotundus), and lodhra (Symlocos Racemosa).
The addition of one-tenth of the above ingredients {i.e., chocha, kramuka, etc.), is (termed) bijabandha.
The same ingredients as are added to prasanna are also added to white liquor (svetasurd).
The liquor that is manufactured from mango fruits (sahakdrasurd) may contain a greater proportion of mango essence (rasottara), or of spices (bijottara). It is called mahdsura when it contains sambhdra (spices as described above).
When a handful (antarnakho mushtih, i.e., so much as can be held in the hand, the fingers being so bent that the nails cannot be seen) of the powder of granulated sugar dissolved in the decoction of moratd (Alangium Hexapetalum), paldsa (Butea Frondosa), dattura (Dattura Fastuosa), karanja (Robinia Mitis), meshasringa (a kind of poison) and the bark of milky trees (kshiravriksha) mixed with one-half of the paste formed by combining the powders of lodhra (Symplocos Racemosa), chitraka (Plumbago Zeylanica), vilanga, pdthd (clypea Hermandifolia), mustd (cyprus Rotundus), kaldya (leguminous seeds), ddruharidra (Amonum Kautilya's Arthashastra Xanthorrhizon), indivara (blue lotus), satapushpa (Anethum Sowa), apdmdrga (Achyranthes Aspera) saptaparna (Echites Scholaris), and nimba (Nimba Melia) is added to (even) a kumbha of liquor payable by the king, it renders it very pleasant. Five palas of phdnita (sugar) are added to the above in order to increase its flavour.
On special occasions (krityeshu), people (kutumbinah, i.e., families) shall be allowed to manufacture white liquor (svetasura), arishta for use in diseases, and other kinds of liquor.
On the occasions of festivals, fairs (samdja), and pilgrimage, right of manufacture of liquor for four days (chaturahassaurikah) shall be allowed.
The Superintendent shall collect the daily fines (daivasikamatyayam, i.e., license fees) from those who on these occasions are permitted to manufacture liquor.
Women and children shall collect 'sura,' and 'kinva,' 'ferment' Those who deal with liquor other than that of the king shall pay five percent as toll.
With regard to sura, medaka, arishta, wine, phaldmla (acid drinks prepared from fruits), and dmlasidhu (spirit distilled from molasses):— Having ascertained the day's sale of the above kinds of liquor, the difference of royal and public measures (mdnavydji), and the excessive amount of sale proceeds realised thereby, the Superintendent shall fix the amount of compensation (yaidharana) due to the king (from local or foreign merchants for entailing loss on the king's liquor traffic) and shall always adopt the best course.
Kautilya's Arthashastra [Thus ends Chapter XXV, "The Superintendent of Liquor" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents," of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty- sixth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XXVI. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SLAUGHTER-HOUSE.
WHEN a person entraps, kills, or molests deer, bison, birds, and fish which are declared to be under State protection or which live in forests under State -protection (abhaydranya), he shall be punished with the highest amercement.
Householders trespassing in forest preserves shall be punished with the middlemost amercement.
When a person entraps, kills, or molests either fish or birds that do not prey upon other animals, he shall be fined 26% panas; and when he does the same to deer and other beasts, he shall be fined twice as much.
Of beasts of prey that have been captured, the Superintendent shall take one-sixth; of fish and birds (of similar nature), he shall take one-tenth or more than one-tenth; and of deer and other beasts (mrigapasu), one-tenth or more than one-tenth as toll.
One-sixth of live animals such as birds and beasts shall be let off in forests under State-protection.
Elephants, horses or animals having the form of a man, bull or Kautilya's Arthashastra an ass living in oceans as well as fish in tanks, lakes, channels and rivers; and such game-birds as krauncha (a kind of heron), utkrosaka (osprey), ddtyiiha (a sort of cuckoo), hamsa (flamingo), chakravdka (a brahmany duck), jivanjivaka (a kind of pheasant), bhringardja (Lanius Malabaricus), chakora (partridge), mattakokila (cuckoo), peacock, parrot, and maina (madanasdrika) as well as other auspicious animals, whether birds or beasts, shall be protected from all kinds of molestations.
Those who violate the above rule shall be punished with the first amercement.
(Butchers) shall sell fresh and boneless flesh of beasts (mrigapasu) just killed.
If they sell bony flesh, they shall give an equivalent compensation (pratipdkam).
If there is any diminution in weight owing to the use of a false balance, they shall give eight times the diminution.
Cattle such as a calf, a bull, or a milch cow shall not be slaughtered.
He who slaughters or tortures them to death shall be fined 50 panas.
The flesh of animals which have been killed outside the slaughter-house (parisunam), headless, legless and boneless flesh, rotten flesh, and the flesh of animals which have suddenly died shall not be sold. Otherwise a fine of 12 panas shall be imposed.
Cattle, wild beasts, elephants (vyala), and fish living in forests under State protection shall, if they become of vicious Kautilya's Arthashastra nature, be entrapped and killed outside the forest preserve.
[Thus ends Chapter XXVI, "The Superintendent of Slaughter-house" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty-seventh chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XXVII. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PROSTITUTES.
THE Superintendent of Prostitutes shall employ (at the king's court) on a salary of 1,000 panas (per annum) a prostitute (ganikd), whether born or not born of a prostitute's family, and noted for her beauty, youth, and accomplishments.
A rival prostitute (pratiganikd) on half the above salary (kutumbardhena) shall also be appointed.
Whenever such a prostitute goes abroad or dies, her daughter or sister shall act for her and receive her property and salary. Or her mother may substitute another prostitute. In the absence of any of these, the king himself shall take the property.
With a view to add to the splendour of prostitutes holding the royal umbrella, golden pitcher, and fan, and attending upon the king seated on his royal litter, throne, or chariot, prostitutes shall be classified as of first, middle and highest rank according to their beauty and splendid jewellery; likewise their salary shall be fixed by thousands.
She who has lost her beauty shall be appointed as a nurse (mdtrikd).
Kautilya's Arthashastra A prostitute shall pay 24,000 panas as ransom to regain her liberty; and a prostitute's son 12,000 panas.
From the age of eight years, a prostitute shall hold musical performance before the king.
Those prostitutes, female slaves, and old women who are incapable of rendering any service in the form of enjoyment (bhagnabhogdh) shall work in the storehouse or kitchen of the king.
A prostitute who, putting herself under the protection of a private person, ceases to attend the king's court shall pay a pana-and-a-quarter per mensem (to the Government).
The superintendent shall determine the earnings, inheritance, income (dyd), expenditure, and future earnings (dyati) of every prostitute.
He shall also check their extravagant expenditure.
When a prostitute puts her jewellery in the hands of any person but her mother, she shall be fined AlA panas.
If she sells or mortgages her property (svapateyam), she shall be fined 50lA panas.
A prostitute shall be fined 24 panas for defamation; twice as much for causing hurt; and 50V4 panas as well as X¥i panas for cutting off the ear (of any person).
When a man has connection with a prostitute against her will or with a prostitute girl (kumdri), he shall be punished with the highest amercement. But when he has connection with a willing Kautilya's Arthashastra prostitute, (under age), he shall be punished with the first amercement.
When a man keeps under confinement, or abducts, a prostitute against her will, or disfigures her by causing hurt, he shall be fined 1,000 panas or more rising up to twice the amount of her ransom (nishkraya) according to the circumstances of the crime and the position and the status of the prostitute (sthdnaviseshena).
When a man causes hurt to a prostitute appointed at the court (praptddhikdram), he shall be fined thrice the amount of her ransom.
When a man causes hurt to a prostitute's mother, to her young daughter, or to a rupaddsi, he shall be punished with the highest amercement.
In all cases of offences, punishment for offences committed for the first time shall be the first amercement; twice as much for offences committed for a second time; thrice as much for the third time; and for offences committed for the fourth time, the king may impose any punishment he likes.
When a prostitute does not yield her person to any one under the orders of the king, she shall receive 1000 lashes with a whip or pay a fine of 5,000 panas.
When having received the requisite amount of fees, a prostitute dislikes to yield her person, she shall be fined twice the amount of the fees.
When, in her own house, a prostitute deprives her paramour of his enjoyment, she shall be fined eight times the amount of the fees unless the paramour happens to be unassociable on account of disease and personal defects.
Kautilya's Arthashastra When a prostitute murders her paramour, she shall be burnt alive or thrown into water.
When a paramour steals the jewellery or money of, or deceives to pay the fees due to, a prostitute, he shall be fined eight times that amount.
Every prostitute shall supply information to the superintendent as to the amount of her daily fees (bhoga), her future income (dyati), and the paramour (under her influence).
The same rules shall apply to an actor, dancer, singer, player on musical instruments, a buffoon (vdgjivana), a mimic player (kusilava), rope-dancer (plavaka), a juggler (saubhika), a wandering bard or herald (chdrana), pimps, and unchaste women.
When persons of the above description come from foreign countries to hold their performances, they shall pay 5 panas as license fee (prekshdvetana).
Every prostitute (rupdjivd) shall pay every month twice the amount of a day's earning (bhogadvigunam) to the Government.
Those who teach prostitutes, female slaves, and actresses, arts such as singing, playing on musical instruments, reading, dancing, acting, writing, painting, playing on the instruments like vina, pipe, and drum, reading the thoughts of others, manufacture of scents and garlands, shampooing, and the art of attracting and captivating the mind of others shall be endowed with maintenance from the State.
They (the teachers) shall train the sons of prostitutes to be chief actors (rangopajivi) on the stage.
The wives of actors and others of similar profession who have Kautilya's Arthashastra been taught various languages and the use of signals (sanja) shall, along with their relatives, be made use of in detecting the wicked and murdering or deluding foreign spies.
[Thus ends Chapter XXVII, "The Superintendent of Prostitutes" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents," of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty-eighth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XXVIII. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SHIPS.
THE Superintendent of Ships shall examine the accounts relating to navigation not only on oceans and mouths of rivers, but also on lakes natural or artificial, and rivers in the vicinity of sthdniya and other fortified cities.
Villages on seashores or on the banks of rivers and lakes shall pay a fixed amount of tax (kliptam).
Fishermen shall give l/6th of their haul as fees for fishing license (naukdhdtakam).
Merchants shall pay the customary toll levied in port-towns.
Passengers arriving on board the king's ship shall pay the requisite amount of sailing fees (ydtrdvetanam).
Those (who make use of the king's boats in) fishing out conch-shells and pearls shall pay the requisite amount of hire (Naukdhdtakam), or they may make use of their own boats.
Kautilya's Arthashastra The duties of the superintendent of mines will explain those of the superintendent of conch-shells and pearls.
The superintendent of ships shall strictly observe the customs prevalent in commercial towns as well as the orders of the superintendent of towns (pattana, port town).
Whenever a weatherbeaten ship arrives at a port-town, he shall show fatherly kindness to it.
Vessels carrying on merchandise spoiled by water may either be exempted from toll or may have their toll reduced to half and let to sail when the time for setting sail approaches.
Ships that touch at harbours on their way may be requested the payment of toll.
Pirate ships (himsrikd), vessels which are bound for the country of an enemy, as well as those which have violated the customs and rules in force in port towns shall be destroyed.
In those large rivers which cannot be forded even during the winter and summer seasons, there shall be launched large boats (mahdndvah) provided with a captain (sdsaka), a steersman (niydmaka), and servants to hold the sickle and the ropes and to pour out water.
Small boats shall be launched in those small rivers which overflow during the rainy season.
Fording or crossing the rivers (without permission) shall be prohibited lest traitors may cross them (and escape).
When a person fords or crosses a river outside the proper place and in unusual times, he shall be punished with the first Kautilya's Arthashastra amercement.
When a man fords or crosses a river at the usual place and time without permission, he shall be fined 26% panas.
Fishermen, carriers of firewood, grass, flowers, and fruits, gardeners, vegetable-dealers, and herdsmen, persons pursuing suspected criminals, messengers following other messengers going in advance, servants engaged to carry things, provisions, and orders to the army, those who use their own ferries, as well as those who supply villages of marshy districts with seeds, necessaries of life, commodities and other accessary things shall be exempted (to cross rivers at any time and place).
Brahmans, ascetics (pravrajita), children, the aged, the afflicted, royal messengers, and pregnant women shall be provided by the superintendent with free passes to cross rivers.
Foreign merchants who have often been visiting the country as well as those who are well known to local merchants shall be allowed to land in port- towns.
Any person who is abducting the wife or daughter of another, one who is carrying off the wealth of another, a suspected person, one who seems to be of perturbed appearance, one who has no baggage, one who attempts to conceal, or evade the cognisance of the valuable load in one's hand, one who has just put on a different garb, one who has removed or renounced one's usual garb, one who has just turned out an ascetic, one who pretends to be suffering from disease, one who seems to be alarmed, one who is stealthily carrying valuable things, or going on a secret mission, or carrying weapons or explosives (agniyoga), one who holds poison in one's hand, and one who has come from a long distance without a pass shall all be arrested.
Kautilya's Arthashastra A minor quadruped as well as a man carrying some load shall pay one mdsha.
A head-load, a load carried on shoulders (kdyabhdrah), a cow, and a horse shall each pay 2 mdshas.
A camel and a buffalo shall each pay 4 mdshas.
A small cart (laghuydna)5 mdshas; and a cart (of medium size) drawn by bulls (golingam) shall pay 6 mdshas and a big cart (sakata) 7 mdshas.
A head-load of merchandise lA mdsha; this explains other kinds of loads. In big rivers, ferry-fees are double the above. Villages near marshy places shall give (to the ferry-men) the prescribed amount of food-stuff and wages.
In boundaries, ferry-men shall receive the toll, carriage-cess, and road-cess. They shall also confiscate the property of the person travelling without a pass. The Superintendent of Boats shall make good the loss caused by the loss of the boat due to the heavy load, sailing in improper time or place, want of ferry-men, or lack of repair. Boats should be launched between the months of Ashddha, the first seven days being omitted, and Kdrtika; the evidence of a ferryman should be given and the daily income should be remitted.
[Thus ends Chapter XXVIII, "The Superintendent of Ships" in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya. End of the forty-ninth chapter from the beginning.]
CHAPTER XXIX. THE SUPERINTENDENT OF COWS.
Kautilya's Arthashastra THE Superintendent of cows shall supervise (1) herds maintained for wages (vetanopagrdhikam), (2) herds surrendered for a fixed amount of dairy produce (karapratikara), (3) useless and abandoned herds (bhagnotsrishtakam), (4) herds maintained for a share in dairy produce (bhdgdnupravishtam), (5) classes of herds (vrajaparyagram), (6) cattle that strayed (nashtam), (7) cattle that are irrecoverably lost (vinashtam), and (8) the amassed quantity of milk and clarified butter.
(1) When a cowherd, a buffalo-herdsman, a milker, a churner, and a hunter (lubdhaka) fed by wages graze milch cows (dhenu) in hundreds (satam satam)— for if they graze the herds for the profit of milk and ghi, they will starve the calves to death,— that system of rearing the cattle is termed 'herds maintained for wages.'
(2) When a single person rears a hundred heads (rupasatam) made up of equal numbers of each of aged cows, milch cows, pregnant cows, heifers, and calves (vatsatari) and gives (to the owner) 8 vdrakas of clarified butter per annum, as well as the branded skin (of dead cows if any), that system is called 'herds surrendered for a fixed amount of dairy produce.'
(3) When those who rear a hundred heads made up of equal numbers of each of afflicted cattle, crippled cattle, cattle that cannot be milked by any one but the accustomed person, cattle that are not easily milked, and cattle that kill their own calves give in return (to the owner) a share in dairy produce, it is termed 'useless and abandoned herd. ' (4) When under the fear of cattle-lifting enemies (parachakrdtavibhaydt), cattle are kept under the care of the superintendent, giving him l/10th of the dairy produce for his protection, it is termed "herds maintained for a share in dairy produce."
(5) When the superintendent classifies cattle as calves, steers, tameable ones, draught oxen, bulls that are to be trained to yoke, bulls kept for crossing cows, cattle that are fit only for the supply of Kautilya's Arthashastra flesh, buffaloes and draught buffaloes; female calves, female steer, heifer, pregnant cows, milch cattle, barren cattle— either cows or buffaloes; calves that are a month or two old as well as those which are still younger; and when, as he ought to, he brands them all inclusive of their calves of one or two months old along with those stray cattle which have remained unclaimed in the herds for a month or two; and when he registers the branded marks, natural marks, colour and the distance from one horn to another of each of the cattle, that system is known as 'class of herds.'
(6) When an animal is carried off by thieves or finds itself into the herds of others or strays unknown, it is called 'lost.'