The moft honourable Se£l of Philofophers, of whofe Opinions many Pretenders boaft ftill now a-days, will perfuade us, That it is in our power to be happy. The Stoicks * con- tinually lay, We ought only to depend upon our felves •, we ought not to be vexed. * Tmc beatum effe te for the Lois of Dignities, Eftates, Friends, Relations; we ought to be always calm S7™ %ltJ- fum and without the leaft Difturbance whatever happens; Banifhrnent, Injuries, Affronts, h his qu& homines' erU- Difeafes, and even Death are no Evils, and ought not to be feared, and a thoufand »«<■,_ optant, cujlodiunt, ni- Paradoxes of that Nature, which we are apt enough to believe; both becaufe of m!W!erif) mn dko l™* our Pride, that makes us affeft Independency, as that becaufe Reafon teaches us JS:S * "' Sen- that moft part of the Evils, which really afflict us, would not be able to difturb us, if all things remained in good Order.
But God has given us a Body, and by that Body united US to all fenfible things: Sin has fub- jefled us to our Body, and by our Body made us dependent upon all fenfible things. It is the Or- der of Nature, it is the Will of the Creatour, that all the Beings that he has made mould hang together: And therefore being united to all things, and the Sin o? the firfi Man having made us dependent on all Beings, to which God had only united us: there is now none but he is at once united and fubje&ed to his Body, and by his Body to his Relations, Friends, City, Prince, Coun- try, Cloaths, Houfe, Eftate, Horfe, Dog, to all the Earth, to the Sun, the Stars, and the Heavens.
It's then ridiculous to tell Men, that it is in their power to be happy, wife, and free: It is to leer them, ferioufly to advife them they ought not to be affli&ed for the Lofs of their Friends -or Eftates. For as it were abfurd to exhort Men not to feel Pain when they are beaten, or not to be fenfible of Pleafure when they eat with an Appetite; fo the Stoicks are either unreafonable, or not in good earneft, when they cry, That we ought not to be forry for the Death of our Father, the Lofs of our Goods, our Banifhrnent, Imprifonment, and the like; nor to be glad of the hap- py Succefs of our Affairs: fince we are united to our Country, Goods, Friends, tS>c. by a Natural Union, which at prefent has no dependence on our Will. I grant that Reafon teaches us, we are to undergo Banifhrnent without Sorrow: but the fame Reafon likewife teaches us we ought to endure the cutting off our Arm without Pain; becaufe the Soul is fuperiour to the Body, and* that, according to the light of Reafon, her happinefs or mifery ought not to depend upon it: but "tis ridiculous to argue againft Experience, which in this occafion will convince us that things are not fo, as our Reafon intimates they ought to be.
The Philofophy of the Chriftians is quite different from that; they deny not but Pain is an Evil, and that it is hard to be feparated from thofe things to which Nature has united us, or tc» rid our felves from the Slavety Sin has reduc'd us to. They agree that it is a Diforder that the Soul mail depend upon her Body, but they own withall that ihe depends upon it, and even fo much that Ihe cannot free her fell' from that Subje£tion but by the Grace of our Lord. ' I fee, faith Rom. 7. St. Paul, anoiher Law in my Members warring againfi the Law of my Mind, and bringing me into 23> 24<, Captivity to the Law cf Sin, which is in my Members. 0 wretched Man that I am! wbofiia// de- liver me from the Body of this Death? the Grace of God through Jefus Chriji our Lvrdjimll do iL The Son of God, his Apoltles and all his true Difciples command us above all to be Patient, be- caufe they know that Mifery mull: be the Expectation and Portion of the Righteous. In fhort, true Chriftians or true Philofophers, fay nothing but what is agreeable to found Reafon and Experience; whereas all Naturecontinual.lv imougns the proud Opinion and prefurnption of Has Stoicks* the F. Male-branche Concerning BookV.
The Chriftians know that to free themfelves in fome manner from the Subjection they are under, they muft endeavour to deprive themfelves of all thofe things that they cannot enjoy without Plea- fire, nor want without Pain \ it being the only means to preferve that Peace and Liberty of Mind, which they owe to their Deliverer's Beneficence. On the contrary the Stoicks^ following the falfe Notions of their Chimerical Philophy, imagine that they are wife and happy, and that they need but think upon Vertue and Independency, to become Vertuous and Independent. Sound Reafon and Experience alTure us, that the belt, way not to feel the fmart of ftinging is to fhun the Nettle: but the Stokks fay, " Sting me never fo much, I (hall by the ftrength of my Mind, and the help cc of my Philofophy, raife my felf fo high above my Body, that all your pricking mail not reach tc me. I can demonftrate that my Happinefs depends not upon it, and that Pain is not an Evil h cc and you fhall fee by the Colour of my Face, and by the whole deportment of my Body, that u my Philofophy has made me invulnerable.
Their Pride bears up their Courage, however it hirjders not but that they mould fufTer Pain with Vexation, and be really miferable; fo that their Union with their Body is not deftroyed, nor their Pain vaniihed:, but all this proceeds from their Union with other Men, ftrengthened by the defire of their Efteem, which in fome manner withftands the Union of their Soul with their Bo- dy. The fenfible view of the Spectators, to whom they are united, flops the Courfe of the Ani- mal Spirits that mould follow upon the pain, and blots out the Impreffion they would make up- on their Face:, for was there no body to look on them, that Phantafm of Conftancy and Liberty of Mind would prefently vanifh: So that the- Stoicks do only in fome degree withftand the Union of their Soul to their Body, by making themfelves greater Slaves to other Men, to whom they are united by a drift of Glory. And 'tis therefore an undoubted truth, that all Men are united to all fenfible things, both by Nature and their Concupifcence ^ which may fufficiently be known by Experience, and of which all the Actions of Mankind are fenfible demonftrations, though Rea- ibn feems to oppofe it.
Though this Union be common to all Men, 'tis not however of an equal Extent and Strength in all -, for as it proceeds from the Knowledge of the Mind ^ fo it may be faid that we are not actually united to unknown Objecf s. A Clown in his Cottage does not concern himfelf with* the Glory of his Prince and Country, but only with the honour of his own and the Neighbouring Villages ^ becaufe his Knowledge does not extend farther.
The Union with fuch ObjeQs as we have leen, is ttronger than the Union to thofe we have only imagin'd, or heard relation of-, becaufe by Senfation we are more ftricf ly united to fenfible things, as leaving deeper Impreflions in our Brain, and moving the animal Spirits in a more vio- lent manner, than when they are only imagin'd.
Neither is that Union fo ftrong in thole that continually oppofe it, that they may adhere to the Goods of the Mind, as it is in thofe who fuffer themfelves to be carried away and inflav'd by their Paffions, fince Concupifcence increafes and ftrengthens that Union.
Laft of all, the feveral Employments and States of this Life, together with the various difpofi- tions of divers Perfons, cauie a confiderable difference in that fenfible Union which Men have with Earthly Goods: Great Lords have greater Dependencies than other Men, and their Chains, as I may call them, are longer. The General of an Army depends on all his Souldiers, becaufe all his Souldiers reverence him. This Slavery is often the Caufe of his Valour •, and the defire of being efteem'd by thofe that are WitnefTes of his Aftions, often drives him to Sacrifice to it more fenfible and rational defires. The fame may be faid of all Superiours, and thofe that make a great Figure in the World, Vanity being many times the Spur of their Vertue, becaufe the love of Glo- ry is ordinarily ftronger than the love of Truth. I lpeak here of the love of Glory, not as a fimple Inclination but a Paffion, fince that love may become fenfible, and is often attended with very- lively and violent Commotions of the Animal Spirits.
Again the different Ages and Sexes are primary Caufes of the difference of Paffions. Children love not the fame things as adult and old Men, or at leaft love them not with that Force and Conftancy. Women depend only on their Family and Neighbourhood; but the dependencies of Men extend to their whole Country, becaufe 'tis their part to defend it; and that they are mightily taken up with thofe great Offices, Honours and Commands, that the State may beftow upon them.
There is fuch a variety in the Employments and Engagements of Men, that it is impoffible to explain them all. The difpofition of Mind in a Married Man is altogether different from that of a fingle Perfon $ for the former is in a manner wholly taken up with the care of his Family. A Fryar has a Soul of another make, and depends upon fewer things than the Men of the World, and even than Secular Ecclefiafticks, but he is ftronger filmed to thofe few things. One may argue in the fame manner concerning the different States of Men in general, but the little fenfi- ble engagements cannot be explain'd, becaufe they differ almoft in every private Perfon j it of- ten hapning that men have particular Engagements altogether oppofite to thofe that they ought to have in reference to their condition. But though the different Genius and Inclinations of Men, Women, Old Men, Young Men, Rich, Poor, Learned, and Ignorant, in fhort of all the different Sexes, Ages and Conditions, might be fully treated of in general; yet they are too well known by thofe that are converfant with the World, and of all the thinking part of Man- kind, to increafe with them the Bulk of this Book^ efpecially, feeing that our Eyes may afford us a very plcafant and folid Inltruction of all fuch matters. But if any chufe to read them in Greek, rather than to learn them by his own reflection on what he fees, I refer him to the fecond Book fchap. II. The Search after Truth* | Book of the Rhetoricks ofAriftutle^ which I take to be the Mailer-Piece of that Philofopher ■, becaufe he lays there few tilings, in which he can be miitaken •, and that he feldorri ventures to prove what he aliens.
It is therefore evident that the fenfible Union of the M hid of Men, with whatever has any Re- lation to the prefervation of their Life, or of the Society of which they are Members, differs in different Perfonsj reaching farther in thofe that have more Knowledge, that are in a higher Sia- tion and are indued with a larger Fancy •, whereas that Union is flricf er and ftronger in thole that are more fenfible, that have a lively er Imagination, and have more blindly given up themfelves to the violence of their Paffions.
Such Confederations upon the almofl infinite Bands that iliften Men to fenfible Obje&s, are of" an extraordinary Ufe-, and the bell way to become a great proficient in this fort of Learning, is the ftudy and obfervation of our felves^ fince from the Inclinations aad Paffions, of which we are confeious in our lelves, we can be fully afl»r'd of all the inclinations of other Men, and can make a good guefs at a great part of the Paffions they are fubjeft to: to which adding the Information we can get of their particular Exgagements, and of the different Judgments that follow from eve- ry different Paffion, of which we fhall fpeak hereafter-, it may perhaps not prove fo hard a Task to guefs moil part of their Actions, as it is for an Aftronomer to foretell an Eclipfe. For though Men be free, yet it feldom happens that they make ufe of their Liberty, in oppoiition to their na- tural Inclinations and violent Paffions.
Before the Clofe of this Chapter I muff obferve, that it is one of the Laws of the Union of the Soul and Body, that all the Inclinations of the Soul, even thofe me has for Goods, that have noi .relation to the Body, fhould be attended wuth Commotions of the Animal Spirits, that render thofe Inclinations fenfible; becaufe Man being not a pure Spirit, it is impoffible he fhould have -any Inclination altogether pure, and without mixture of any Paffion whatfoever. So that the love of Truth, Juftice, Vertue, of God himfelf, is always attended by fome Motion of the Animal Spi- rits that render that love fenfible, though we be not aware of their fenfibility, being then taken up with lively er Senfations. Juft as the Knowledge of Spiritual things is always accompanied with traces on the Brain, which indeed make that Knowledge more lively, but commonly more confufed: 'Tis true we are frequently inapprehenfive of the Imagining Faculty's mixing in any manner with the Conception of an abftract ed Truth. The Reafon of it is, that thofe Truths are not reprefented by Images, or traces of Nature's Inftitution, and that all the traces that raife fucli Ideas, have no Relation with them, but fuch as proceeds from Chance, or the Free-will of Men.
For Inftance, Arithmeticians and Algebraifts, who apply themfelves to very abftracled Objects, make however a very great ufe of their Imagination, in order to fix the view of their Mind upon thefe Spiritual Ideas. The Cyphers, the Letters of the Alphabet, and the other Figures which they fee or imagine, are always join'd to thofe Ideas, though the traces that are wrought by thefe Characters have no proper Relation to thofe abftra&ed Objects, and fo can neither change nor ob- fcure them: Whence follows, that by a proper Ufe and Application of thefe Cyphers and Letters, they come to difcover fiich remote and difficult Truths, as could not be found out otherwife.
Since therefore the Ideas of fuch things as are only perceivable by the pure Underftanding, carl be connected with the traces of the Brain, and that the fight of Object s that are beloved, hated or fear'd by a Natural Inclination, can be attended with the Motion of the Animal Spirits •, it plain- ly appears, that the thoughts of Eternity, the fear of Hell, the hope of an Eternal Happtnels, though they be Objects never fo infenfible, can however raife in us very violent Paffions.
And therefore we can lay that we are united in a fenfible manner, not only to fuch things as relate to the prefervation of our Life, but alfb to Spiritual things, with which the Mind is im- mediately, and. by it felf united. And even it often happens, that Faith, Charity, and Self-Love, make that Union with Spiritual things ftronger, than that by which we are. join'd to all fenfible Objecf s. The Soul of the true Martyrs is more united to God, than to their Body ^ and thofe that fuffer Death for afferting a falfe Religion, which they believe to be true, give us fufficiently to know, that the fear of Hell has more power upon them than the fear of Death. There is for the raoft part fo much heat and obfl inacy on both fides, in the Wars of Religion, and the defence of Superftitions, that it cannot be doubted but fome Paffion has a hand in it ^ and even a Paffion far ftronger and ftedfafter than others, becaufe it is kept up by an Appearance of Reafon, both in fuch as are deceived, and in thofe that follow the Truth.
We are then united by our Paffions to whatever feems to be the Good or the Evil of the Mind, as well as to that which we take for the Good or Evil of the Body. Whatever can be known to have any relation to us can affeft us, and of all the things we know, there is not one but it has fome reference or other to us. We are fomewhat concern'd even for the molt abftrafted Truths, when we know them •, becaufe there is at leaft that Relation of Knowledge betwixt them and our Mind, and that in fome manner wTe look on them as our Property, by virtue of that Know- ledge. We feel our felves as wounded when they are impugned; and if we be wounded, thenfure- ly we are affected and difturb'd. So that the Paffions have fuch a vaft and comprehensive Do- minion, that it is impoffible to conceive any thing in reference to which it may be laid, that Men are exempt from their Empire. But let's now fee what is their Nature, and endeavour to difco- ver whatever they comprehend.
t CHAP, F. Malebranche Concerning Book V.
CHAP. III.
A particular Explanation of all the Changes^ happening either to the Body or Soul in every Pajpon.
SEven things may be diftinguifhed in each of our Paffions, fave Admiration only, which is in- deed but an Imperfect Paffion. The firft is the Judgment the Mind makes of an Object, or rather the confufed or diftinct View of the Relation that Object has to us.
The fecond is a New Determination of the Motion %f the Will towards that Object, provided it be or feem to be a Good. Before that View, the Natural Motion of the Soul was either undetermined, that is to lay, fhe was carried towards Good in general, or it otherwife deter- mined by the knowledge of fome particular Object. But in the very inftant of the mind's per- - ceiving that Relation of the new Object to it Jelf, that general Motion of the Will is forthwith determin'd, conformably to the perception of the Mind. The Soul advances, near that Object by her Love, that fhe may relifh it, and difcover her good in it, through a fenfible delectation which the Author of Nature affords her, as a Natural Reward of her Inclination to Good. She judged that that Objeft was a Good by an abftracted and unpathetick Reafon, but fhe perfifts in the per- fuafion of it, through the Efficacy of Senfation; and the lively er that Senfation is, the ftronger is her adhefion to the Good that feems to be the Caufe of it.
But if that particular Object be confidered as Evil, or able to deprive us of fome Good, there happens no New Determination in the Motion of the Will -, but only the Motion towards the Good, oppos'd to that feemingly evil Object, is augmented: which augmentation is greater or lef- ler, as the Evil feems to be more or lefs formidable to us. For indeed we bate only becaufe we love, and the Evil that is without us is judg'd no farther Evil, than with reference to the Good of which it deprives us: So that Evil being confider'd as a privation of Good, to fly from Evil is to fly the privation of Good, which is the fame thing as to tend towards Good; and therefore there happens no new determination of the Natural Motion of the Will, at the prefence of an unwel- come Object ■, but only a Senfation, painful, diftafteful or imbitter'd, which the Author of Nature * Before inflicts on the Soul, as a pain naturally confequent to her being depriv'd of Good. * Reafon alone sin, that had not been fufficient to carry her to it, wherefore this painful and vexing Senfation is fuper- Sevfation a(jded to quicken her. Thence I conclude, that in any Paffion whatfbever, all the Motions ofthe pain but on- Soul towards Good, are the Motions of Love. But as we are affected with divers Senfations, ac- fyawar- cording to the various Circumftances that attend the View of Good, and the Motion of the Soul ning-, be- towards it-, fo we 'come to confound our Senfations with the Commotions ofthe Soul, and to ^' f?^ * imagine as many different Motions in the Paffions, as there are different Senfations.
elfewhere, Adam might, whenever he pkafed, flop the Motion of the Animal Spirits that produce Pain: So that, if he ever felt pain, 'twas becaufe he consented to feel it; or rather he never felt any, becaufe he never had a mind to feel it.
Upon this head it muft be obferved that Pain is a true and real Evil, and no more the Privation of Pleafure, than Pleafure the Privation of Pain: for there is a great difference betwixt not feel- ing or being depriv'd of fuch a Senfation of Pleafure, and the actual enduring of Pain: So that every Evil is not precifely fo, becaufe it deprives us of Good, but only that Evil, as I have ex- pjain'd, that is without us, or is not a Modification of our Soul. Neverthelefs as by Goods and Evils we commonly underftand things good or evil, and not the Senfations of Pleafure and Pain, which are rather the natural Tokens by which the Soul diftinguifhes Good from Evil; it may be faid methinks without Equivocation, that Evil is nothing but the privation of Good, and that the natural motion of the Soul, that removes us from Evil, is the fame with that which carries us to good-, for in brief, all natural Motion being an Impreffion of the Author of Nature, whofe acting centers in himfelf, and who can incline us only towards himfelf: The true Motion ofthe Sdul is always eflentially the Love of Good, and but accidentally an Averfion from Evil.
I grant that Pain may be confider'd as an Evil, and in that fenfe the Motion of the Paffions, which is ftir'd up by it, is not real, fince we never will Pain; and though we pofitively will the abfence of Pain, yet 'tis only becaufe we pofitively will the Prefervation or Perfection of our Being.
The third thing to be obferv'd in every Paffion is the Senfation that attends them; the Senfation of Love, Hatred, Defire, Joy, Sorrow, which are all different in the different Paffions.
The fourth thing is a new Determination ofthe courfe of the Animal Spirits and Blood to the outward and inward parts ofthe Body. Before the View ofthe Object ofthe Paffion, the vital Spirits were difpers'd throughout the whole Body, for the prefervation of all its parts in general; but at the appearance of that new Object, all this Order and Oeconomy is difturb'd, and moft part ofthe Spirits are thrown into the Mufcles ofthe Arms, Legs, Face, and other exteiiour parts of the Body, to put them in a difpofition fuitahle to the ruling Paffion, and to give it fuch a gefture and motion, as are neceffary for the obtaining or avoiding the imminent Good or Evil: But if its own Forces are infufh'cient for its occafions, thefe fame Spirits are diftributed in fuch a manner as make it machinally utter certain words and cries; and which diffufe over the Face and the reft of ihc Body, fuch an ail and comportment, as is capable of actuating others with the fame Paffion it fchap. lit. The Search after Truth. j it felf is pofTefs'd with. For Men and Beafts having a mutual cohelion by the Byes and Ears, when any one of them is in a violent Commotion, it heceffarily affeCts the Spectators and Hea- rers, and naturally makes upon their Imagination 1'uch an Impreflion as troubles them, and njoves them to preferve it.
As to the reft of the Animal Spirits, they violently delcend into the Heart, Lungs, Liver, Spleen, and other Vifcera, thence to draw contributions, and to haften thofe parts to fend forth' a fufficient and timely fupply of Spirits, neceffary to preferve the Body in that extraordinary Con- tention.
The fifth thing is a fenfible Commotion of the Soul, who feels her felf agitated by an unex- pected overflow of Spirits. This fenfible Commotion of the Soul always attends that Motion of the Spirits, that the Soul may participate of all that affeCts the Body •, even as the Motion of Spirits is raided in the Body, when the Soul is carried toward any ObjeCt. For the Body and Soul being mutually united, their Motions are reciprocal.
The fixth thing are feveral Senfations of Love, Hatred, Joy, Defire, Sorrow, that are produ- ced, not by the Intellectual view of Good or Evil, as thofe that have been already mention'd, but by the various concufhons that are caufed in the Brain by the Animal Spirits.
The feventh thing is a certain Senfation of Joy, or rather internal Satisfaction, which detains the Soul in her Paflion, and affures her that fhe is in the fitteft State fhe can be, in reference to the ObjeCt fhe confiders. This internal fatisfaCtion attends all the Paflions whatfoever, whether they proceed from the fight of an Evil, or from the fight of a Good, Sorrow as well as Joy. This. fatisfaCtion makes all the Paflions pleafant, and induces us to yield our confent, and give up our felves to them; and 'tis that fatisfaCtion which muft be overcome by the Delights of Grace, and the Comforts of Faith and Reafon. For as the Joy of the Mind, is the refult of a certain or evi- dent Knowledge that we are in the beft ftate that can be in relation to. the ObjeCts perceiv'd by. the Underftanding j fo the pleafantnefs of the Paflions is a. natural confequence of that confufed Senfation we have of being in the beft ftate we can be in reference to thofe things we perceive by our Senfes. Now 'tis by the Joy of the Mind, and the Comforts of Grace, that the falfe de- light of the Paflions, which makes us Slaves to fenfible Goods, muft be vanquifhed.
All the forementioned things are to be found in all the Paflions, unlefs they be raifed by con- fufed Senfations, and that the Mind perceive not die Good or Evil from whence they proceed z, for then 'tis plain that they have not the three firft qualifications. It likewife appears that all thefe things are not free, fince they are in us without our Confent, and even againlt it fince the Sin ^ but that the Confent of our Will is the only thing which is really in our power. However it will be fit to explain all thefe things more at large, and to make them more fenfible by fome Inftances.
Let us fuppofe a Man to whom an Affront has been actually offer'd, or one whofe Imagination is either naturally ftrong and lively, or over-heated by fome Accident, as a Difeafe or a Surfeit of Sorrow and Melancholy. This Man in his Clofet fancies that fuch a one, who perhaps does not think upon him, Is willing and ready to wrong him. The fenfible View, or the Imagination of the Oppofition betwixt the Actions of his Enemy and his own defigns, will be the firft Caufe of his Paflion.