weal." the disembodied soul requires a special divine assis- The student should read the whole of Sum. Thiol, tance to enable it to see God. In these present exceeding the capacities of their natures. In view of this end, a method of government must be found for man, different from that which suffices for the lower creation. For the means must be proportionate to the end: if then man is ordained to an end transcending his natural capacities, he must be furnished with some supernatural assistance from heaven, enabling him to tend to that end.
2. A thing of inferior nature cannot be brought to that which is proper to a superior nature except by the virtue and a6tion of the said superior nature. Thus the moon, which has no light of its own, is made luminous by the virtue and action of the sun.* But to behold the First Truth as it is in itself so transcends the capacity of human nature as to be proper to God alone (Chap. LII). Therefore man needs help of God to arrive at such an end.
5. There are many impediments in the way of man's arriving at his end. He is impeded by the weakness of his reason, which is easily dragged into error, and so erring he is thrown off the right way of arriving at his end. He is impeded by the passions of the sensitive portion of his nature, and by the tastes which drag him to sensible and inferior things. The more he clings to such things, the further he is separated from his last end: for these things are below man, whereas his end is high above him. He is impeded also very frequently by infirmity of body from the performance of the a6ts of virtue which carry him on to his end. Man therefore needs the divine assistance, lest with such impediments in his way, he fail altogether in the gaining of his last end.
Hence it is said: No man can come to me9 unless the Father \ who bath sent me, draw him (John vi, 44): As the branch cannot bear fruit of itself unless it abide in the vine, so neither can ye unless ye abide in me (John xv, 4).f Hereby is excluded the error of the Pelagians, who said that man could merit the glory of God by sheer free will of his own.
CHAPTER CXLIX-T6at the Divine Assistance does not compel a man to Virtue DIVINE providence provides for all things according to their mode of existence (Chap. LXXIII, n. 2). But it is proper to man and to every rational creature to aft voluntarily and to be master of his own a6ts; and compulsion is contrary to voluntariness.
3. It is by will that man is directed to a final end: for the good and the final end is the object of will. And the divine assistance is vouchsafed us for this special purpose, that we may attain to our final end. That aid therefore does not exclude the aft of our will: on the contrary, it is precisely the aft of our will that the divine assistance produces in us: hence the Apostle says: // is God who worfyth in us both to will and to aft according to the good will chapters his argument deals with man in this lire, learn tricks by contact with man, which they never arguing that he needs special divine endowments, would have learnt in their wild state. And savages are called 'grace,' enabling him so to live on earth as to civilised by coming in contact with a culture higher be found worthy of divine vision when he comes to than their own, but for which contact with a higher die. As he cannot see God face to face by his natural race they would have remained perennial savages. As powers, so neither can he lead a life worthy of that man humanises the brute, and civilises his savage vision by the mere strength and rectitude of human brother, so does God divinise man. nature. t The first text argues the need of 'actual,' the • And dogs and horses, parrots and monkeys, second of ' habitual ' and ' sanctifying ' grace.
(Phil, ii, 13). But compulsion defeats in us the aft of the will: for we do that under compulsion of which we will the contrary.
4. Man arrives at his last end by adts of virtue. But a£ts done under compulsion are not adts of virtue, for in virtue the chief thing is choice.
Hence it is said: Consider that to-day the Lord bath put forth in thy sight life and good, and on the other hand death and evil, that thou may est love the Lord thy God and wal\ in his ways. But if thy heart is turned away, and thou wilt not hear, etc. (Deut. xxx, 15-18): Before man is life and death, good and evil: what pleases him shall be given to him (Ecclus xv, 1 8).
CHAPTER CL-That Man cannot Merit beforehand the afore- said Assistance EVERYTHING stands as matter* to that which is above itself. Now matter does not move itself to its own perfection, but must be moved by another. Man then does not move himself to the gaining of the divine assistance, which is above him, but rather he is moved by God to the gaining of it. But the motion of the mover precedes the motion of the thing moved, alike in the order of thought and in the order of causation. The divine assistance therefore is not given to us because we are advanced to receive it by our good works; but rather we are proficient in good works because we are forestalled by the divine assistance.
Hence it is said: Not by the works of justice that we hal>e done, but according to bis own mercy he hath saved us (Tit. iii, 5): // is not of him that villetb, nor of him that runneth, but of Qod that showeth mercy (Rom. ix, 1 6): because man needs must be forestalled by the divine assistance for purposes both of willing well and doing well. As the vidtory is attributed to the general, which is won by the labour of the soldiers, so such expressions as the above are not to be taken as exclusive of the free choice of the will, according to the miscon- strudtion which some have put upon them, as though man were not master of his own a6ts, interior and exterior, but they show that man is under God. Again it is said: Turn us, O Lord, to thee, and we shall be turned (Lament, v, zi): which shows that our turning, or conversion, is anticipated by the aid of God converting us. Still we read, as spoken in the person of God: Turn ye to me, and I will turn to you (Zach. i, 3); not that the work of God in us does not go before our conversion; but the meaning is that the conversion, whereby we turn to God, is aided also by His subsequent aid, strengthening it to arrive to efFedt, and securing it that it may reach its due term.
Hereby is excluded the error of the Pelagians, who said that the divine assistance is given us in consideration of our deservings; and that, while the beginning of our justification is of ourselves, the consummation of it is • MateriaTttcr se habet> i.e., is in an attitude of potentiality, not of activity. The * matter * here spoken of is that which is in potentiality to the 4 form.'
of God.
GOD THE END OF CREATURES CHAPTER CLI-Thai the aforesaid Assistance is called < Grace* } and what is the meaning of c Grace constituting a State of Grace 9 * BECAUSE what is given to another without any previous deserts of his is said to be given gratis, and because the divine aid given to man anticipates all human deserving, it follows that this aid is given to man gratis, and therefore is aptly called by the name of 'grace.' Hence the Apostle says: If by grace \ it is not now of wor\s, otherwise grace is no more grace There is also another reason why the aforesaid assistance of God has received the name of 4 grace.' One person is said to be 4 in the good graces ' of another, because he is well loved by him. Now it is of the essence of love that he who loves should wish good and do good to him whom he loves. God indeed wishes and does good to all His creatures, for the very being of the creature and its every perfection is of God willing and working it (B. I, Chapp. XXIX, XXX: B. II, Chap. XV): hence it is said: Thou lovest all things that arey and batest none of the things that tbou hast made (Wisd. xi, 25). But a special tie of divine love is observable in connexion with those to whom He renders assistance, enabling them to attain the good which transcends the order of their nature, namely, the perfect fruition, not of any created good, but of God's own self. This assistance then is aptly called 4 grace,' not only because it is given 4 gratis,' but also because by this assistance a man comes to be, by a special prerogative, 4 in the good graces ' of God.
This grace, in the man in the state of grace, must be a form and perfec- tion of him who has it.
1. That whereby a man is directed to an end must be in continual rela- tion with him: for the mover works change continually until the body moved attains the term of its motion.f Since then man is directed to his last end by the assistance of divine grace, he must continually enjoy this assistance until he arrives at the end. But that would not be if the assistance were afforded him only as a sort of motion or passion, and not as a form abiding and, as it were, resting in him: for the movement and passion would not be in the man, except when his attention was being actually turned to the end, as is not the case continually, which is evident most of all in men asleep. Therefore the grace that puts a man in the state of grace is a form and perfection abiding in man, even when he is not actively engaged.
2. The love of God is causative of the good that is in us, as the love of man is called forth and caused by some good that is in the objedl of his love. But man is excited to special love by some special good pre-existent in the obje6t. Therefore where there is posited a special love of God for man, there must consequently be posited some special good conferred by God on man. Since then the grace that constitutes the state of grace denotes a special love of God for man, there must be likewise denoted some special goodness and perfedtion thereby existing in man.
• Gratui gratum fortius, 1 sandtifying grace.' The t True of accelerated motion, at of a stone falling, expression is taken from St Paul, Eph. i, 6, gratue of which St Thomas was thinking. True again of ssur, ht qua gratijkavit nos9 i\apiT*<T€v rjpas. Hence motion persistent, though impeded; as of an engine the celebrated jrcxapirtyicFi? of Luke i, 28, might be drawing a train, impeded by fri&ion and resistance of translated gratificata, or grata faAa, or pergrata fa8at the air. Not true, of course, of motion simply, to express die Juktss of the Greek perfect 3. Everything is ordained to an end suited to it according to the character of its form: for of different species there are different ends. But the end to which man is directed by the assistance of divine grace is something above human nature. Therefore there must be superadded to man some supernatural form and perfection, whereby he may be aptly ordained to the aforesaid end.
4. Man ought to arrive at his last end by dint of activities of his own. Now everything is aCtive in virtue of some form of its own. In order then that man may be brought to his last end by activities of his own, there must be superadded to him some form, to validate his activities for the gaining of his last end.
5. Divine providence provides for all according to the mode of their nature. But it is a mode proper to man to require for the perfection of his actions, over and above his natural powers, certain perfections in the shape of habits, whereby he may do good, and do it well, connaturally, readily, and pleasantly.* Therefore the aid of grace, given man by God for arriving at his last end, implies some form and perfection intrinsic to man.
Hence in Scripture the grace of God is spoken of as light: Ye were once darkness, but now light in the Lord (Eph. v, 8). The perfection whereby man is led on to his final end in the vision of God is appropriately termed ligbt% light being the principle of vision.
Hereby is set aside the opinion of some who say that the grace of God is no positive quality in man {nihil in homine ponit), as no positive quality is ascribed to the courtier who is said to be in the good graces of the King, but rather to the King who has an affeCtion for him. We see how this mis- take arose, from failing to observe the difference between divine love and human love: for divine love is causative of the good that it loves in another, but not so human love.f CHAPTER CLTL-TAat the Grace which constitutes the State of Grace causes in us the Love of Qod THE grace which constitutes the state of grace is an effeCt of God's love. But the proper effeCt of God's love in man is to make man love God: for the chief effort of the lover is laid out in drawing the beloved to the love of him; and unless that succeeds, the love must be broken off.
2. There must be some union between those who have one end in view, as citizens in one State, and soldiers ranked together on the battlefield. But the final end to which man is led by the assistance of divine grace is the vision of God as He essentially is, which is proper to God Himself; and so God shares this final good with man. Man then cannot be led on to this end unless he is united with God by conformity of will, the proper effeCt • Here is implied the Aristotelian doctrine of t St Thomas here has refuted by anticipation the habits, according to which a habit may be defined as Lutheran doctrine of imputed justice. The Lutherans 4 a permanent acquired quality, resident in a power, met his arguments with scornful epithets, Tiomsticos and determining that power, originally indeterminate, asinos, and the like. Further his arguments maybe to alt regularly, readily, and pleasantly in a certain pressed upon certain moderns, who see in sanctifying line of action.' Skill is a habit, so is virtue. The argu- grace nothing but what they call a ' moral relation.'
ment is that, as there are natural habits, so there St Thomas seems to consider it something physical, should be a supernatural habit, which is ' habitual ' or * sanctifying.' grace.
of love: for it belongs to friends to like and dislike together, and to rejoice and grieve together. The grace then that constitutes the state of grace renders man a lover of God, as he is thereby guided to an end shared with him by God.
3. The grace that constitutes the state of grace must principally perfect the heart. But the principal perfeftion of the heart is love. The proof of that is, that every motion of the heart starts from love: for no one desires, or hopes, or rejoices, except for some good that he loves; nor loathes, nor fears, nor is sad, or angry, except about something contrary to the good that he loves.
4. The form whereby a thing is referred to any end assimilates that thing in a manner to the end: thus a body by the form of heaviness acquires a like- ness and conformity to the place to which it naturally moves.* But the grace that constitutes the state of grace is a form referring man to his last end, God. By grace then man attains to a likeness of God. And likeness is a cause of love.
5. A requisite of perfedt work is that the work be done steadily and regularly. That is just the effedrt of love, which makes even hard and grievous tasks seem light. Since then the grace that constitutes the state of grace goes to perfect our works, the said grace must establish the love of God within us.
Hence the Apostle says: The charity of God is spread abroad in our hearts by the Holy Ghost who is gfoen to us (Rom. v, 5).
CHAPTER ClAll-That Divine Grace causes in us Faith THE movement of grace, guiding us to our last end, is voluntary, not violent (Chap. CXLIX). But there can be no voluntary move- ment towards an objeft unless the object be known. Therefore grace must afford us a knowledge of our last end. But such knowledge cannot be by open vision in our present state (Chap. XL VIII): therefore it must be by faith.f 2. In every knowing mind, the mode of knowledge follows the mode of nature: hence an angel, a man, and a dumb animal have different modes of knowledge according to their differences of natures. But, for the gaining of his last end, man has a perfection superadded to him, over and above his nature, namely, grace. Therefore there must also be superadded to him a knowledge, over and above his natural knowledge, and that is the knowledge of faith, which is of things not discerned by natural reason.
3. As when wood is first warmed by fire, the fire does not take kindly to the wood; but finally, when the wood is all ablaze, the fire becomes as it were connatural to the wood and a part of its very being: or as when a pupil is taught by a master, he must, to start with, take in the ideas of the master, not as understanding them of himself, but in the spirit of one ready to accept on another's word things beyond his capacity; and so in the end, when his education is advanced, he will be able to understand those things: in like manner, before we arrive at our final end, which is the clear vision of the # 'Earth to earth,' as we say, or matter to matter, end must be themselves supernatural. Grace however The fait of any substance having weight argues that is no miraculous illumination of the intellect, no priit is material, and assimilates it to that great body of vate revelation of the mysteries of God: it supposes matter of which we have our first experience, our the Christian tradition handed down from man to mother earth. man, rationally taught and rationally grasped: but it t Why not by reason? The answer is given in the disposes us to accept that tradition as we hear it, and next argument. The work of our salvation must be it assists the teaching Church to preserve it. all of a piece. The essential means to a supernatural First Truth as it is in itself, the intelleft of man must submit to God in readiness to take His word; and that submission and readiness to believe is the work of divine grace.
4. See further, B. I, Chapp. IV, V.
Hence the Apostle says: By grace ye are sated through faith; and that not of your selves > for it is the gift of God (Eph. ii, 8).
Hereby is refuted the error of the Pelagians, who said that the begin- ning of faith in us was not of God, but of ourselves.
CHAPTER GIAV-Tbat Divine Grace causes in us a Hope of future Blessedness IN every lover there is caused a desire of union with his loved one, so far as may be: hence it is most delightful to live in the society of those whom one loves. As then by grace man is made a lover of God, there must be caused in him a desire of union with God, so far as may be. But faith, which is caused of grace, declares the possibility of a union of man with God in perfeft fruition, wherein blessedness consists. Consequently the desire of this fruition follows upon the love of God. But desire is a troublesome thing, without hope of attainment. It was proper therefore that in men, in whom the love of God and faith in Him was caused by grace, there should be caused also the hope of attaining to future blessedness.
3. Virtue, the way to blessedness, is paved with difficulties: hence the need of hope.
4. No one stirs to reach an end, which he reckons it impossible to compass.
Hence it is said: He hath regenerated us unto a living hope (1 Pet. i, 3): In hope we are saved (Rom. viii, 24).
CHAPTER CLV-O/" Graces given gratuitously* SINCE the things done by God are done in order (Chapp. LXXVII- LXXX), a certain order had to be followed in the manifestation of the truths of faith, so that some should receive those truths immediately from God, others receive of them, and so in order even to the last. The invi- sible good things, the vision of which makes the happiness of the blessed, and which are the objefts of faith, are first revealed by God to the blessed angels by open vision: then by the ministry of angels they are manifested by God to certain men,f not by open vision, but by a certitude arising from divine revelation. This revelation is made by an inner light of the mind, elevating the mind to see such things as the natural light of the understand- * All graces arc given gratuitously; but some t Not to any men now living, but to the prophets graces constitute the recipient in the state of grace, of the Old Law, with the apostles, and some few other as sanctifying, or habitual grace: or help him in or saints of the New. The great revelation was that towards the state of grace, as oQual grace: these are made in Christ (Heb. i, i), of which the Church is called gratia gratum faciens. They go to sanctify the the guardian and exponent. The Church gets no new recipient. Other graces are not given for the recipi- revelations. The Pope has no revelations as Pope: he ent, but for the sake of others, and do not of them- takes counsel of theologians: only a special providence, selves make for the sanclification of him who has such as might preserve him, e.g., from drowning, prethem. Such graces, called gratia gratis data, include vents his authoritatively teaching the Church any the miraculous powers discussed in this chapter, and point of faith or morals that is not a legitimate unin 1 Cor. xii, ziv. folding of the revelation of Christ.
ing cannot attain to. As the natural light of the understanding renders a man certain of what he observes by that light, so does this supernatural light con- vey certainty of the obje&s which it reveals: for we cannot securely publish to others what we are not certain of ourselves. This light, which inwardly ' enlightens the mind, is sometimes borne out by other aids to knowledge, as well exterior as interior. There maybe formed by divine power some utterance, or locution, heard by the external senses. Or it may be an inner locution, caused by God, and perceived by phantasy. Or there may be bodily appear- ances, external and visible, formed by God. Or such corporeal appearance may be inwardly depi&ed in phantasy. By these means, aided by the light inwardly impressed on his mind, man receives a knowledge of divine things. Hence, without the inner light, these aids are insufficient for the knowledge of divine things; whereas the inner light is sufficient of itself without them.* Now because those who receive a revelation from God ought in the order of divine enactment to instrudl others, there needed to be further communicated to them the grace of speech. Hence it is said: The Lord hath given me a learned tongue (Isai. 1, 4): I »/7/ give you speech and wisdom, which all your adversaries shall not be able to withstand and gainsay (Luke xxi, 15). Hence also the gift of tongues (A6ts ii, 4).
But because any announcement put forth requires confirmation before it can be received, — unless indeed it is self-evident, and the truths of faith are not evident to human reason, — there was need of something to confirm the announcements of the preachers of the faith. But, inasmuch as they transcend reason, they could not be confirmed by any demonstrative process of reasoning from first principles. The means therefore to show that the an- nouncements of these preachers came from God was the evidence of works done by them such as none other than God could do, healing the sick, and other miracles. Hence the Lord, sending his disciples to preach, said: Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse lepers, cast out devils (Matt, x, 8); and, They going Jortb preached everywhere, the Lord working withal, and confirming their words by the signs that followed.^ In the aforesaid effefts of grace we observe a certain difference. Though the name of 4 grace' applies to them all, inasmuch as they are given 'gratui- tously ' without any preceding merit, nevertheless the working of love alone has a further claim to the name of 'grace,' as constituting the subject in 'the state of grace,' or in 4 the good graces of God ' (gratum Deo facit): for it is said: / love them that lote me (Prov. viii, 17). Hence faith and hope and other means to the last end may be in sinners, who are not in the grace of God: love alone is the proper gift of the just, because he who abideth in charity abideth in God, and God in him (1 John iv, 16). J There is another difference to be observed in these workings of grace, # Obviously, there is danger of illusion in these t Here follows a long disquisition on true and visions, locutions, and inner lights. No man is more false prophecies, hardly within the scope of the suspicious of such things than the average Catholic modern reader.
priest. A priest from his training gets the mind of a I Even in the sinner the habits of faith and hope, lawyer: he loves Church law and public teaching, and as also all actual graces, common to the just and the reckons less of the private wisdom of individuals. Ca- unjust, may be put under gratia gratum faciens, inastholic faith stands clear of private revelations. Such much as they tend to the sanclification of the recipient are not the ordinary channels whereby God teaches more directly than to the general edification of the His mysteries to men. The ordinary channel is the Church, which is the purpose of gratia gratis data.
Word Incarnate and His living Church on earth, a Besides extraordinary miraculous gifts, there would visible external authority. Certainly, every Christian come under gratia gratis data the ordinary powers man has his ' inner light,' but that light is none other that go with the Sacrament of Order, than the grace of faith, enabling him and prompting him to believe, as on God's word, what the Church teaches him as revealed in Christ.
and it is this, that some of them are necessary for a whole lifetime, as believ- ing, hoping, loving, and obeying the commandments of God, without which things salvation is impossible; and for these effe&s there must be in mancer- 1 tain habitual perfedlions, that he may be able to aft according to them as occasion requires.* Other effe&s of grace are necessary, not for a whole life- time, but at certain times and places, as working of miracles, or foretelling of future events. To these effe&s habitual perfections are not given, but cer- tain impressions are made by God, which cease when the a6t ceases, and have to be repeated when the a£t is repeated. Thus prophets in every revelation are illumined with a new light; and in every working of miracles there must be a fresh putting into operation of divine power, f CHAPTER CLVl-That Man needs the Assistance of Divine Grace to persevere in GoodX THE power of free will regards matters of ele&ion: but a matter of ele6tion is some particular thing to be done; and a particular thing to be done is what is here and now:§ but perseverance is not a matter of present and immediate condu6t, but a continuance of activity for all time: perseverance therefore is an effe6t above the power of free will, and therefore needing the assistance of divine grace.
3. Though man is master of his aft, he is not master of his natural powers; and therefore, though he is free to will or not will a thing, still his willing cannot make his will in the aft of willing adhere immovably to the thing willed or chosen. But the immovable adherence of the will to good is requisite for perseverance: perseverance therefore is not in the power of free will. || Hence it is said: He who hath begun a good work in you will perfeti it unto the day of Christ Jesus (Philip, i, 6): The God of all grace, who hath called us to his eternal glory in Christ Jesus, himself will perfeSl us through some little suffering, confirm and establish us (1 Pet. v, 10). There are also found in Holy Scripture many prayers for perseverance: e.g., PerfeSl my steps in thy ways, that my footsteps may not slip (Ps. xvi, 5); and especially that petition of These ' habitual perfe&ions ' are the ' infused than the mere liberty of his will. Aristotle refers him habits ' of faith, hope, charity, etc., which constitute the ' habitual grace ' conferred upon the soul at baptism. Cf. Aquinas Etkicus, I, 195, 271; II, 3.
t It may be discussed whether the charismata of 1 Cor. xiv were not habitual. A mark of a gift being or not being habitual is the ability or inability of the possessor to bring it into play at will.
f If there is question of supernatural good, — as faith, hope, charity, or other virtues practised on motives of faith, hope, and charity — man can do not a single a& of such good, still less persevere in it, without the aid of grace. If there is question of natural good, — as justice, fortitude, temperance, practised on a motive of ' sweet reasonableness,' — we must further enquire whether the question is asked of man historically considered, as a fallen creature; then we must take St Thomas's answer, Sum. Tbeol. ia-2se, q. 109, art. 8; or of man as the a priori philosopher views him, merely as man. In the latter view this fad still seems discernible, that, the adls of virtue being difficult, and the call for such adls con- tinual, man under such a series of trials is likely to break down at times, if he have no other support to the support of acquired habits of virtue [Etk. Nit. II-IV), a considerable support indeed, but these habits are difficult to acquire, and Aristotle seems to exaggerate the facility which they afford of well- doing, and the security that comes of them against a fall. So even in his pure natural condition man seems to be a feeble creature, that cannot be trusted to walk quite alone, but needs " some aid of divine providence governing him from without," and dis- posing external circumstances in his favour. The aid and kind provision of environment, making for morality, which would have to be looked for from God by man even in his pure natural condition, has been termed by some theologians * natural grace.'
§ When I resolve to do a thing next Christmas what is immediately accomplished in my mind is the resolution to do the thing in time: but the thing is not done. And so of a resolution to persevere in well-doing.
Is immovable adherence of the will to good requisite for perseverance, or is it sufficient that in each successive trial the will be not actually moved?
Is perseverance distinguishable from what is some- times called 'confirmation in grace'?
the Lord's Prayer, Thy kingdom come: for the kingdom will not come for us unless we persevere in good.
Hereby is refuted the error of the Pelagians, who said that free will is sufficient for man for his perseverance in good, and that there is no need of the assistance of grace for the purpose.
As free will is not sufficient for perseverance in good without the help of God given from without, so neither is any infused habit. For in the state of our present life the habits infused into us of God do not totally take away from our free will its fickleness and liability to evil, although they do to some extent establish the free will in good. And therefore, when we say that man needs the aid of grace for final perseverance, we do not mean that, over and above the habitual grace first infused into him for the doing of good a<5ts, there is infused into him another habitual grace enabling him to persevere; but we mean that, when he has got all the gratuitous habits that he ever is to have, man still needs some aid of divine providence governing him from without.
CHAPTER CINll-That he who falls from Grace by Sin may be recovered again by Grace