ther it advances, the more it individualifes. Each tnan has habits and prejudices that are properly his own. He lives ia a little tinlverfe of his own creating, or he communicates with the om- niprefent and eternal volume of truth. With thefe he compares, the fucceflive perceptions of his mind, and upon thefe depend the conclufions he draws and the conduit he obferves. Hence it iii'*- evitably follows, that phyfical caufes, though of fome confe- quence in the hiftory of man, fink into nothing, when compared with the great and inexpreffible operations of refledtion. They are the prejudices we conceive or the judgments we form^ our apprehenfions of truth and falfhood, that conftitute the true bafis ©f diftinition betweea man and mam. The difference between favage and favage indeed j in the firfl: generation of the human fpecies and in perfed; folitude,, can only be afcribed to the dif- ferent impreffions made upon th^ir fenfes.. But this difference would be almoft imperceptible. The ideas of wifdom and folly would never have entered the human mind, if men, like beafls, derived neither good nor evil from the refledlions and difcoveri&s cf their companions and ancefiors..
Objcaion " Hence we are furnifiied with an anfwer to the analogical ar-^ from the cf- ° feet of breed gumcut from the confiderable effefts that phyfical caufes appear to produce upon brutes. " Breed for example appears to be of unqueftionable importance to the character and qualifications of 6 horfes PHYSICAL CAUSES.
55 horfes and does: why fiiould we not fuppofe thU or certain BOOK I. '^ ' ff CHAR VII.
other brute and occult caufes to be equally efficacious in the cafe "^ * ^ of men? How comes it that the races of animals perhaps never <iegenerate, if carefully cultivated; at the fame time that we have no feeurity againft the wifeft philofopher's begetting a dunce?"
I anfwer, that the exiflence of phyfical caufes cannot be con- troverted. In the cafe of man their efficacy is fwallowed up in (the fuperior importance of reflexion and fcience. In animals on the contrary they are left almoft alone. If a race of negroes were taken, and maintained each man from his infancy, except fo far as was neceflary for the propagation of the fpecies, in fo- litude; or even if they were excluded from an acquaintance with the improvements and imaginations of their anceftors, though permitted the fociety of each other, the operation of breed might perhaps be rendered as confpicuous among them, as in the dif- ferent dafles of horfes and dogs. But the ideas they would other- •wtfe receive firom their parents and civilifed or half-ciyilifed neigh- hours would be innumerable: and, if the precautions above men- tioned were unobfervcd, all parallel between the two cafes would -ceafe.
Such Is the charader of man confidercd as an individual. He Conclufion. is operated upon by exterior caufes immediately, producing cer- tain ■effedls upon him independently of the exercife of rcafon; And he Is operated upon by exterior caufes mediately, their im- prcffions furnlfhing him with materials for reflcftlon., and af- I 2 fuming 6o OF NATIONAL CHAp'Vn ^"^^""^ ^^^ form of motives to slQ. or to refrain from- adtmgv, ^ V ' But th€ latter of tbefe, at lead fo far as relates to man in a Givilifed ftate, may ftand for the whole. He that would change the charatter of the individual, would miferably mifapply his ef- forts, if he principally fought to effedl this purpofe by the cpera*- tions of heat and cold, drynefs and moifture upon the animal fi-ame. The true inftruments of moral influence, are defire and averfion, punifhmeat and reward, the exhibition of general truth, aad the development of thofe punilhments and. reward^ which wifdom and error by tlie very nature of the thing con*- ftantLy bring along with them*.
PART IL OF N4TI0NAL CHARACTERS.
-CHARACTER OF THE PRIESTHOOD.: — ALE NATIONS. CAPABLE OF LIBERTY. — THE ASSERTION ILLUSTRATED. EXPER.I*- ENCE FAVOURS THESE REASONINGS. — MEANS OE INTRO*- DUCING LI3ERTY.- AS is the charader of the individual; fo may we exped to find it with nations and great bodies of men. The operations of law and politicai inftitution will be important and ihterefting, the operations of climate trifling and" unworthy of notice. Thus there are particular profeffions, fuch as that of the priefthood, which mull always operate to the produdion of a particular charader.
Priefts CHARACTERS. 6r Piiefts arc upon all occafions acGuftomed to have their opinions J^PPi'^ }• CHAP.VIU liftened to with implicit deference: they will therefore be im- j!:: ^ i ^ ' Charafter of perious, dogmatical and impatient of oppofition. Their fuceefs ['^^ P''''^''-- with mankind depends upon the opinion of their fuperior inno- cence; they will therefore be particularly anxious about appear- ances, their deportment, will be grave, and their manners formal. The frank and ingenuous fallies of mind they will be obliged to flipprefs; the errors and irregularities into which they may be drawn they will be ftudious to conceal. They are obliged at fef intervals to aflume the exterior of an ardent devotion j but it is impoflible that this fhould at all times be free from occafional coldnefs and diftradion. Their importance is conrie£led with their real or fuppoled mental fiiperrority over the reft of mankind; they muft therefore be patrons of prejudice and implicit faith. Their profperity depends upon the reception of particular opinions in the world; they muft therefore be enemies to freedom of en- quiry; they muft have a bias upon their minds impreffed by fomething different from the force of evidence. Particular moral caufes may in fome inftances limit, perhaps fuperfede the in- fluence of general ones, and render fome men fuperior to the charader of their prefeffion; but, exclufively of fuch exceptions, priefts of all religions, of all climates and of all ages v^ill have a flriking fimilarity of manners -and difpofition. In the fame man- ner we may reft affured that free men in whatever country will be firm, vigorous and fpirited in proportion to their freedom, and that vafTals and Haves will be ignorant, fervile and unprin^ cipled...
The 62 OF NATIONAL The truth of this axiom has indeed been pretty univerfally admitted; but it has been affirmed to be " irapoffible to eftablifh 9.
All nations capable ot free p-cvernment in certain warm and effeminate climates." To Ubeit)'. ° enable us to judge of the reafonablenefs of this affirmation, let us confider what procefs would be neceffary in order to intro- duce a free government into any country.
The anfwer to this queftion is to be found in the anfwer to that other, whether freedom have any real and folid advan- tages over flavery? If it have, then our mode of proceeding re- fpe£ling it ought to be exadly parallel to that we Ihould em- ploy in recommending any other benefit. If I would perfuade a man to accept a great eflate, fuppoiing that poffeffion to be a real advantage; if I would induce him to fele£t for his com- panion a beautiful and accomplifhed woman, or for his friend a wife, a brave and difmterefted man; if I would perfuade him to prefer eafe to pain, and gratification to torture, what more is neceffary, than that I fhould inform his underftanding, and make -him fee thefe things in their true and genuine colours? Should I find it necellary to enquire firll of what climate he was a . native, and whether that were favourable to the poffeffion of a great eftate, a fine woman, or a generous friend?
The advantages of liberty over flavery are not lefs real, though unfortunately they ai'e lefs palpable, than In the cafes jull enu- merated. Every man has a confufed fenfe of thefe advanta-ges, but he has been taught to believe that men would tear each other to pieces, if they had not priefts to diredt their confciences, CHARACTERS. 6^ fcienccs, and lords to confult for their fubfiftence, and kinsrs to BOOK i.
^ ^ CHAP.Vir.
(leer them in fafety through the inexplicable dangers of the po- ^. ' litical ocean. But whether they be milled by thefe or other pre- judices, whatever be the fancied terror that induces them quietly to fubmit to have their hands bound behind them, and the fcourge vibrated over their heads, all thefe are queftions of rea- fon. Truth may be prefented to them in fuch irrefiftible evi- dence, perhaps by fuch juft degrees familiarifed to their ap- prehenfion, as ultimately to conquer the moft obftinate pre- pofTeflions. Let the prefs find its way into Perfia or Indoftan, let the political truths difcovered by the bell of the European iages be transfufed into their language, and it is impoffible that a few falitary converts ihould not be made;^ It is the property cf truth to fpread; and, exclufively of great national convul- fions, its advocates in each fucceeding age wiU be fomewhat more numerous than in that wliich went before. The caufes, which fufpend its progrefs, arife, not from climate, but from the watchful and intolerant jealoufy of defpotic fovereigas.
Let us fuppofs then that the majority of a nation by how- The afllrtion . iliaibattd, ever flow a progrefs are convinced of the defirablenefs, or, which amounts to the fame, the pradlicability of freedom. The fup- pofitlon would be parallel, if we v/ere to imagine ten thoufand men of found intelledl, fh»ut up in a madhoufe, aad fuperintended. hy a fet of three or four keepers. Hitherto they have been per- fuadcd, for what abfurdity has been too great for human iiitelle{3i: to.
64 OF NATIONAL J^PP^yrh t-o entertain? that thev were deftitute of reafon, and that the CHAP.VII. ' ' " ' {"uperintendence under which they were placed was necefiary for their prefervation. They have therefore fubmitted to whfps and ftraw and bread and water, and perhaps imagined this ty- ranny to be a blefling. But a fufpicion is at length by fome ■means propagated among them, that all they have hitherto en- dured has been an impofition. The fufpicion fpreads, they re- fled, they reafon, the idea is communicated from one to another through the chinks of their cells, and at certain times when the vigilance of their keepers has not precluded them from the plea- fures of mutual fociety. It becomes the clear perception, the fet- tled perfuafion of the majority of the perfons confined.
What will be the confequence of this opinion? Will the In- fluence of climate prevent them from embracing the obvious means of their happinefs? Is there any human underftanding that will not perceive a truth like this, when forcibly and re- peatedly prefented? Is there a mind that will conceive no in- dignation at fo horrible a tyranny? In reality the chains fall off of themfelves, when the magic of opinion is diffolved. When a great majority of any fociety are perfuaded to fecure any benefit to themfelves, there is no need of tumult or violence to effefl it. The effort would be to refifl: reafon, not to obey it. The pri- soners are colledled in their common hall, and the keepers in- form them that it is time to return to their cells. They have no longer the power to obey. They look at the impotence of their CFIARACTERS. ' 65 tlieir late maflers, and fmile at their prefumptlon. They quietly BOOK. I.
take of the bleflings of light and air like other men.
Let us compare this theory with the hiftory of mankind. If E^tpenence the theory be true, we may expect to hnd the mhamtants of rea&uings. neighbouring provinces in different flates, widely difcriminated by the influence of government, and little affimilated by refem- blaace of climate. Thus the Gafcons are the gayeft people in all France; but the moment we pafs the Pyrenees, we find the ferious and faturnine charaiSter of the Spaniard. Thus the Athenians were lively, penetrating and ingenious, but the Thebans unpolilhed, phlegmatic and dull. — It would be reafon- able to expe(5l that different races of men, intermixed with each other, but differently governed, would afford a flrong and vifible contrail. Thus the Turks are brave, open and fmcere, but the modei'n Greeks mean, cowardly and deceitful. — Wandering tribes clofely connedled among themfelves, and having little fympathy with the people with whom they refide, may be expected to have great fimilarity of manners. Their fituation renders them con- fpicuous, the faults of individuals refled difhonour upon the whole,- and their manners will be particularly fober and reputable, unlefs they fhould happen to labour under fo peculiar an odium as to render all endeavour after reputation fruitlefs. Thus the Armenl- iins in the Eaft are as univerfally diftinguiflied among the nations with whom they refide, as the Jews In Europe; but the Arme- K nians 66 OFNATIONAL BOOK I. nians are as much noted for probity, as the Tews for extortion. — ' /^ — "-- ' What refemblance is there between the ancient and the modern« Greeks, between the old Romans and the prefent inhabitants of Italy, between the Gauls and the French? Diodorus Siculus de- fcribes the Gauls as particularly given to taciturnity, and Ariftotle affirms that they are the only warlike nation who are negligent of women.
If on the contrary climate were principally concerned in form- ing the charadlers of nations, we might expert to find heat an J cold producing an extraordinary e&Q. upon men, as they da upon plants and inferior animals. But the reverfe of this ap- pears to be the fa£lc Is it fuppofed that the neighbourhood of the fun renders men gay, fantaftlc and ingenious? While the French, the Greeks and the Perfians have been remarkable for- their gaiety, the Spaniards, the Turks and the Chinefe are not lefs diftinguifhed by the ferioufnefs of their deportment. It was the opinion of the ancients that the northern nations were in- capable of civil ifation and improvement; but the moderns have found that the Englifh are not inferior in literary eminence to any nation in the world. Is it alTerted, that the northern na- tions are more hardy and courageous, and that conqueft has ufually travelled from that to the oppofite quarter? It would have been truer to fay that conqueft is ufually made by poverty upon plenty. The Turks, who from the deferts of Tai-tary in- vaded the fertile provinces of the Roman empire, met the Sara- cens CHARACTERS. 67 cens half way, who were advancuie; with fimilar views from the BOOK I.
. ^ CHAP.VIL no lefs dreary deferts of Arabia. In their extreme perhaps heat '^ • ' and cold may determine the charadlers of nations, of the negroes for example on one fide and the Laplanders on the other. Not but that in this very inftance much may be afcribed to the wretchednefs of a fterile climate on the one hand, and to the in- dolence confequent upon a fpontaneous fertility on the other. As to what is more than this, the remedy has not yet been dif- covered. Phyfical caufes have already appeared to be powerful till moral ones can be brought into operation.
Has It been alledged that carnivorous nations are endowed with the greateft courage? The Swedes, whofe nutriment is meagre and fparing, have ranked with the moft diftinguifhed modern nations in the operations of war.
It is ufually flxid, that northern nations are moll addldted to wine, and fouthern to women. Admitting this obfervatlon in its full force, it would only prove that climate may operate upon the groffer particles of our frame, not that it influences thofe finer organs upon which the operations of intelled; depend. But the truth of the firfl of thefe remarks may well be doubted. The Greeks appear to have been fuflScIently addldled to the pleafures of the bottle. Among the Perfians no character was more co- veted than that of a hard drinker. It is eafy to obtain any thing 68 OF NATIONAL ^ BOOK I. of the negroes, even their wives and children, In exchange for Hquor.
As to vv-omen the clrcumftance may be accounted for from moral caufes. The beat of the climate obliges both fexes to go half naked. The animal arrives fooner at maturity in hot coun- tries. And both thefe circumftances produce vigilance and jea- loufy, caufes which inevitably tend to inflame the paffions *.
Means of in- The refult of thefe reafonings Is of the utmoil importance to' troducing liberty.^ him who fpeculates upon principles of government. It is of little.
Gonfequence what difcoverles may be made in moral and political fclence, if, when we have afcertained moft accurately what are the Intelledlual requifites that lead to wifdom and virtue, a blind ^ and capricious principle is to Intrude Itfelf, and taint all our con-- clufions. Accordingly there have been writers on the fubje£t of government, who,.idmitting, and even occafionally declaiming with enthufiafm upon the advantages of liberty and the equal claims of mankind to every focial benefit, have yet concluded that the corruptions of defpotifm and the ufurpations of arifto- - cracy were congenial to certain ages and divlfions of the world,, and under proper limitations entitled to our approbation. - * The majority of inftances in the three preceding pages are taken from Hume's Effay on National Charadlers, where this fubje(5t is treated with mucli ability, Effays, Vol. I, Part I, Eflay xxi.
But CHARACTERS. tg Fut this hypothefis will be found incapable of holding out EOOK I.
againft a moment's ferious reflection. Can there be any flate of * « ' mankind that renders them incapable of the exercife of reafon? Can there be a period in which it is neceflary to hold the human fpecies in a condition of pupillage? If there be, it feems but reafonable that their fuperintendents and guardians, as in the cafe of infants of another fort, fhould provide for the means of their fubfiftence without calling upon them for the exertions of manual induftry. Wherever men are competent to look the firft duties of humanity in the face, and to provide for their defence againft the invafions of hunger and the inclemencies of the fky, there they will out of all doubt be found equally capable of every other exertion that may be neceflary to their fecurity and welfare. Prefent to them a conftitution which fhall put them into a fimple and intelligible method of direding their own affairs, adjudg- ing their conteflis among themfelves, and cherifhing in their bofoms a manly fenfe of dignity, equality and independence, and you need not doubt that profperity and virtue will be the refult.
The real enemies of liberty in any country are not the peo- ple, but thofe higher orders who profit by a contrary fyfl:em» Infufe juft views of foclety into a certain number of the liberally educated and refledling members; give to the people guides and inftrudtors; and the bufmefs is done. This however is not to be accomplifhed but in a gradual manner, as will more fully 4. appeal- 70 OF NATIONAL CHARACTERS.
r^P'^p'^vn ^PP^^^ ^""^ ^^'^^ fequel. The error lies, not in tolerating the worft ' V ^ forms of government for a time, but in fuppofing a change impradicable, and not incefiantly looking forward to its accomplifliment.
CHAP.
CHAP. VIII.
OF THE OBJECTION TO THESE PRINCIPLES FROM THE INFLUENCE OF LUXURY.
THE OBJECTION STATED. — SOURCE OF THIS OBJECTION. — • REFUTED FROM MUTABILITY — FROM MORTALITY — FROM SYMPATHY FROM THE NATURE OF TRUTH. THE PRO- BABILITY OF PERSEVERANCE CONSIDERED.
THERE Is another propofition relative to the fubje6I, book I. CH W VIII. which is lefs to be confidered as an aflertion diftind in ^ ' ^ / itfelf, than as a particular branch of that which has juft been tion ftated. difculTed;I mean the propofition which affirms, " that nations like individuals are fubjedt to the phenomena of youth and old age, and that, when a people by luxury and depravation of manners have funk into decrepitude, it is not in the power of legiflation to reftore them to vigour and innocence."
This Idea has partly been founded upon the romantic notions Source of thu objeftion.
ofpaftoral life and the golden age. Innocence is not virtue. Virtue demands the aftive employment of an ardent mind in the promotion of the general good. No man can be eminently virtuous, who Is not accuftomed to an extenfive range of reflec- tion. He muft fee all t^e benefits to arlfe from a difinterefted proceed- 72 OF THE INFLUENCE BOOK I. proceeding, and muft underftand the proper method of producing * ^^ ' thofe benefits. Ignorance, the flothful habits and Umited views of uncultivated life have not in them more of true virtue, though they may be more harmlefs, than luxury, vanity and extrava- gance. Individuals of exquifite feeling, vv^hofe difguft has been excited by the hardened felfifhnefs or the unblufhing corruption which have prevailed in their own times, have recurred in imagination to the forefts of Norway or the bleak and uncom- fortable Highlands of Scotland in fearch of a purer race of man- kind. This imagination has been the offspring of difappoint- ment, not the diftate of reafon and philofophy.
It may be true, that ignorance is nearer than prejudice to the reception of wifdom, and that the abfence of virtue is a con- dition more hopeful than the prefence of its oppofite. In this cafe it would have been jufter to compare a nation funk in luxury, to an individual with confirmed habits of wrong, than to an individual whom a debilitated conftitution was bringing faft to the grave. But neither would that comparifon have been fair and equitable.
Refuted from The Condition of nations Is more fludluating, and will be mutability: found lefs obftinate in its refillance to a confiftent endeavour for their improvement, than that of individuals. In nations fome of their members wall be lefs confirmed in error than others. A certain- number will be only in a very fmall degree indifpofed t© OF LUXURY.
73 to liften to the voice of truth. This number will perpetually BOOK I.
increafe. Every new convert will be the means of converting * v ' others. In proportion as the body of difciples is augmented, the modes of attack upon the prejudices of others will be varied, and fuited to the variety of men's tempers and prepofleflions.
Add to this that generations of men are perpetually going off frcnmi^itality: the ftage, while other generations fucceed. The next gene- ration will not have fo many prejudices to fubdue. Suppofe a defpotic nation by fome revolution in its affairs to become pof- feffed of a free conftitution. The children of the prefent race will be bred in more firm and independent habits of thinking; the fupplenefs, the timidity and the vicious dexterity of their fathers will give place to an ereO. mien, and a clear and decifive judgment. The partial and imperfe£l change of character which was introduced at firft, will in the fucceeding age become more unalloyed and complete.
Laftly, the power of fecial inftitutions changing the character from fympa- of nations is very different from and infinitely greater than any ^ '^ ' power which can ordinarily be brought to bear upon a folitary individual. Large bodies of men, when once they have been en- lightened and perfuaded, a£l with more vigour than folitary in- dividuals. They animate the mutual exertions of each other, and the united forces of example and fhame urge them to per- feverance. The cafe is not of that cuftomary fort where the L power 74 OF THE INFLUENCE BOOK I. power of reafon only is tried in curing any perfon of his errors; ' — -* but is as if he fhould be placed in an entirely new fituation.
His habits are broken through, and his motives of adion changed. Inftead of being perpetually recalled to vicious prac- tices by the recurrence of his former connections, the whole fociety receives an impulfe from the fame caufe that a£ts upon any individual. New ideas are fuggefted, and the furprife of novelty confpires with the approbation of truth to prevent men from falling back into imbecility and languor.
from tlie na- The queftion may in reality be reduced to an enquiry, wheture of truth.
ther the human underflanding can be made the recipient of truth, whether it be poffible for an effort fo ftrenuous to exifl as to make men aware of their true interefts. For let this be granted, and the confequence is inevitable. It has already fuf- ficiently appeared, that whatever is politically right or politically wrong, muft be in all cafes of no trivial confequence to the wel- fare of mankind. Monarchy for example will by all men be acknowledged to be attended with many difadvantages. It a<Sts upon infufhcient and partial information, it generates intrigue, corruption, adulation and fervility. If it could be proved, that it produced no advantages in equal proportion, and that its abolition would not lead to mifchief, anarchy and diforder, is there a nation upon the face of the earth to whom thefe propofi-. tions were rendered palpable, that would endure to fubmit to it? Is there a nation upon the face of the earth, that would fubmit 7 to OFLUXURY. 75 to the Impofitlons of its adminlftration, the wars It occafions, book i.
and the lavifh revenues by which it is maintained, if they knew *^ >' — "* it to be merely an excrefcence and a difeafe in the order of fociety?
But it has been farther alledged, that, even fhould a luxurious The probanation be prompted by intolerable grievances and notorious feveiance confidered.
ufurpation to afTert the juft principles of human fociety, they would be unable to perpetuate them, and would foon be led back by their evil habits to their former vices and corruption: that is, they would be capable of the heroic energy that fhould expel the ufurper, but not of the moderate refolution that fhould prevent his return. They would roufe themfelves fo far from their lethargy as to affume a new character and enter into dif-^ ferent views; but, after having for fome time a£led upon their convi£lions, they would fuddenly become incapable of under- Handing the truth of their principles and feeling their influence.
Men always a£t upon their apprehenfions of preferablenefs. There are few errors of which they are guilty, which may not be refolved into a narrow and inadequate view of the alternative prefented for their choice. Prefent pleafure may appear more certain and eligible than diftant good. But they never choofe evil as apprehended to be evil. Wherever a clear and unanfwerable notion of any fubje£t is prefented to their view, a correfpondcnt adtion or courfe of a<!^ions inevitably follows. Having thus gained L 2 one 76 OF THE INFLUENCE OF LUXURY.
one ftep in the acquifition of Jruth, it cannot eafily be conceived of as loft. A body of men, having deteded the injurious con- fequences of an evil under which they have long laboured, and having fhaken it off, will fcarcely voluntarily reftore the mifchief they have annihilated. Nothing can reconcile them to the re- vival of falfhood, which does not obliterate their prefent con- vidion of truth.
AN 77 A N ENQUIRY CONCERNING POLITICAL JUSTICE.
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETT.
INTRODUCTION.
NATURE OF THE ENQUIRY — MODE OF PURSUING IT. — DIS- TINCTION BETWEEN SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT.
MR. Locke begins his celebrated Treatife of Government book ii. . CHAP I with a refutation of the patriarchal fcheme of fir Robert ». ^ ' 'j